WikiDer > Amerika yahudiylari

Amerika yahudiylari

Kanadalik va amerikalik yahudiylar shtat / viloyat bo'yicha aholining% sifatida
Jami aholi
6,829,000–7,160,000[1] AQSh umumiy aholisining 1,7–2,6%, 2012 y[2] Aholining ko'payishi (yahudiylarning nasablarini to'liq yoki qisman o'z ichiga oladi) 8,000,000–10,000,000[1]
Aholisi sezilarli bo'lgan hududlar
Nyu-York shahri, Mayami, Los Anjeles, Filadelfiya, Klivlend, Chikago, San-Fransisko, Boston, Baltimor - Vashington
Qo'shma Shtatlar	5,7 million[3]
Isroil	300,000 [4]
Tillar
Amerika ingliz tili Yahudiy Ladino Ibroniycha Frantsuz Ispaniya Forscha Ruscha
Din
Yahudiylik (35% Islohot, 18% Konservativ, 10% Pravoslav, 6% boshqalar, 30% Nominalsiz)[5]
Qarindosh etnik guruhlar
Isroil amerikaliklari

Amerika yahudiylari, yoki Yahudiy amerikaliklar, bor Amerikaliklar kimlar Yahudiylar, tomonidan din, millati, madaniyat, yoki millati.^[6] Bugungi kunda yahudiylar jamoasi Qo'shma Shtatlar asosan iborat Ashkenazi yahudiylari, kim kelib chiqishi diaspora yahudiy aholisi ning Markaziy va Sharqiy Evropa va Amerika yahudiy aholisining taxminan 90-95 foizini tashkil qiladi.^[7][8]

Mustamlakachilik davrida, Ashkenazimning ommaviy ko'chib kelishidan oldin, Ispaniyalik va portugaliyalik yahudiylar Amerikaning o'sha paytdagi oz sonli yahudiy aholisining asosiy qismini ifodalagan va ularning avlodlari a ozchilik bugungi kunda, ular boshqa bir qator yahudiy jamoalari bilan bir qatorda, amerikalik yahudiylarning qolgan qismini, shu jumladan, yaqinroq bo'lganlarni ham anglatadi Sefardi yahudiylari, Mizrahi yahudiylari, etnik jihatdan boshqa yahudiy jamoalari, shuningdek, ularning kichik soni yahudiylikni qabul qiladi. Amerika yahudiylari jamoatchiligi keng doirada namoyon bo'ladi Yahudiylarning madaniy an'analari, o'z ichiga olgan yahudiylarning diniy marosimlarining to'liq spektri.

Diniy ta'riflarga va turli xil aholi ma'lumotlariga qarab, Qo'shma Shtatlar dunyodagi yahudiylarning eng katta yoki ikkinchi jamoasiga ega Isroil. 2012 yilda amerikalik yahudiylar soni, qarab, 5,5 milliondan 8 milliongacha bo'lgan atamaning ta'rifi, bu AQSh umumiy aholisining 1,7% dan 2,6% gacha.^[1]

Tarix

Yahudiylar mavjud bo'lgan O'n uchta koloniya 17-asrning o'rtalaridan boshlab.^[9][10] Biroq, ularning soni oz edi, ko'pi bilan 200 dan 300 gacha 1700 yilgacha etib kelgan.^[11] Bu erta kelganlar asosan edi Sefardi yahudiy G'arbiy Sefardik immigrantlar (shuningdek, ma'lum Ispan va portugal yahudiylari) ajdodlar,^[12] ammo 1720 yilga kelib Ashkenazi yahudiylari Markaziy va Sharqiy Evropadagi diaspora jamoalaridan ustunlik qildi.^[11]

Inglizlar Plantatsiyalar to'g'risidagi qonun 1740 birinchi marta yahudiylarga Britaniya fuqarosi bo'lishga va hijrat qilishga ruxsat berdi koloniyalar. Ayrimlarning mahalliy yurisdiktsiyalarda ovoz berish yoki o'z lavozimlarida ishlash huquqidan mahrum bo'lishiga qaramay, Sefardi yahudiylari eng ko'p bo'lgan beshta shtatda siyosiy tenglikka erishgandan so'ng 1790-yillarda jamoat ishlarida faol bo'lishdi.^[13] Taxminan 1830 yilgacha, Janubiy Karolinaning Charlston shahrida Shimoliy Amerikadagi boshqa joylarga qaraganda ko'proq yahudiylar bor edi. Yahudiylarning keng ko'lamli immigratsiyasi 19-asrda boshlangan, o'sha asrning o'rtalariga kelib ko'pchilik Nemis yahudiylari antisemitik qonunlar va ularning tug'ilgan mamlakatlaridagi cheklovlar tufayli Qo'shma Shtatlarga ko'p sonli ko'chib kelgan.^[14] Ular birinchi navbatda savdogarlar va do'kon egalariga aylanishdi. Sharqiy sohildan asta-sekin yahudiylarning kelishi g'arbga qarab yurar edi va 1819 yilning kuzida Appalachi tizmasining g'arbidagi birinchi yahudiy diniy marosimlari Bayramlar yuqori yilda Sinsinnati, O'rta G'arbdagi eng qadimgi yahudiylar jamoasi. Asta-sekin Cincinnati yahudiylar jamoasi Rabvin boshchiligida yangi amaliyotlarni qo'llaydi Isaak Meyer Hikmatli, Qo'shma Shtatlardagi islohot yahudiyligining otasi,^[15] kabi ayollarni kiritish kabi minyan.^[16] Kelishi bilan mintaqada katta bir jamoa o'sdi Nemis va Litva yahudiylari tashkil etilishiga olib kelgan 1800 yillarning ikkinchi yarmida ManischevitzHozirda Nyu-Jersida joylashgan Amerikaning Kosher mahsulotlarining eng yirik ishlab chiqaruvchilardan biri va Qo'shma Shtatlarda eng qadimgi yahudiy gazetasi va dunyodagi ikkinchi eng qadimiy doimiy gazetasi, Amerikalik isroillik, 1854 yilda tashkil etilgan va hali ham Sincinnatida mavjud.^[17] 1880 yilga kelib Qo'shma Shtatlarda taxminan 250,000 yahudiylar bor edi, ularning aksariyati o'qimishli va asosan dunyoviy nemis yahudiylari edi, garchi yoshi kattaroq ozchilik aholi bo'lsa ham. Sefardi yahudiy oilalar ta'sirli bo'lib qoldi.

Nyu-Yorkka kelgan Sharqiy Evropa yahudiy muhojirlari

Yahudiylarning Qo'shma Shtatlarga ko'chishi 1880 yillarning boshlarida Sharqiy Evropaning ayrim qismlarida ta'qiblar va iqtisodiy qiyinchiliklar natijasida keskin oshdi. Ushbu yangi muhojirlarning aksariyati edi Yahudiy- Ashkenazi yahudiylarini gapirish, ularning aksariyati kambag'al diaspora jamoalaridan kelgan Rossiya imperiyasi va Aholining rangparligi, zamonaviy joyda joylashgan Polsha, Litva, Belorussiya, Ukraina va Moldova. Xuddi shu davrda ko'plab ashkenazik yahudiylar ham kelgan Galisiya, O'sha paytda eng qashshoq mintaqa Avstriya-Vengriya imperiyasi asosan iqtisodiy sabablarga ko'ra quvilgan og'ir yahudiy shahar aholisi bilan. Ko'plab yahudiylar ham ko'chib ketishdi Ruminiya. 19000 asrning oxiri va 1924 yillar oralig'ida 2000000 dan ortiq yahudiylar kelib tushishdi 1924 yilgi immigratsiya to'g'risidagi qonun cheklangan immigratsiya. Ko'pchilik Nyu-York metropoliteni, yahudiy aholisining dunyodagi asosiy kontsentratsiyasini o'rnatish. 1915 yilda kundalik nashr Yahudiy gazetalarning o'zi birgina Nyu-Yorkda yarim million, milliy miqyosda esa 600000 edi. Bundan tashqari, minglab boshqa ko'plab haftalik gazetalarga va ko'plab jurnallarga obuna bo'lishdi.^[18]

20-asrning boshlarida, bu yangi kelgan yahudiylar ko'plab kichiklardan iborat qo'llab-quvvatlash tarmoqlarini qurishdi ibodatxonalar va Landsmanshaften (Germaniya va yahudiy tilida "Qishloqlar uyushmalari") bir shahar yoki qishloqdan kelgan yahudiylar uchun. O'sha davrdagi amerikalik yahudiy yozuvchilariga da'vat etilgan assimilyatsiya va kengroq integratsiya Amerika madaniyativa yahudiylar tezda Amerika hayotining bir qismiga aylanishdi. 500,000 amerikalik yahudiylar (yoki 18 yoshdan 50 yoshgacha bo'lgan yahudiy erkaklarning yarmi) jang qilgan Ikkinchi jahon urushiva urushdan keyin yosh oilalar yangi tendentsiyaga qo'shilishdi shahar atrofi. U erda yahudiylar borgan sari assimilyatsiya bo'lib, ko'tarilganlarini namoyish etishdi o'zaro nikoh. Shahar atrofi yangi markazlarning shakllanishiga ko'maklashdi, chunki yahudiylarning maktabga qo'shilishi Ikkinchi Jahon Urushi oxiridan 1950 yillarning o'rtalariga qadar ikki baravarga oshdi, ibodatxonalarga qo'shilish 1930 yilda 20% dan 1960 yilda 60% gacha ko'tarildi; eng tez o'sish islohotlar va, ayniqsa, konservativ jamoatlarga to'g'ri keldi.^[19] Yaqinda Rossiyadan va boshqa mintaqalardan yahudiylarning ko'chib kelayotgan to'lqinlari asosan Amerika yahudiylari jamoasiga qo'shildi.

Yahudiy millatiga mansub amerikaliklar yillar davomida ko'plab sohalarda va jihatlarda muvaffaqiyat qozonishdi.^[20][21] Amerikadagi yahudiylar hamjamiyati a'zo bo'lishdan chiqib ketdi quyi sinf ko'plab ish joylari taqiqlangan jamiyatning,^[22] akademiya a'zolarida yuqori konsentratsiyali va jon boshiga daromad AQShda o'rtacha ko'rsatkichdan yuqori bo'lgan guruh bo'lish.^[23][24][25]

O'zligini anglash

Olimlar Qo'shma Shtatlardagi yahudiylar uchun tarixiy tajriba tasdiqlash uchun noyob tajriba bo'lganmi yoki yo'qmi deb bahslashmoqdalar Amerika eksklyuzivligi.^[27]

Korelits (1996) 19-asr oxiri va 20-asr boshlarida amerikalik yahudiylar a irqiy ta'rif yahudiylikning millatni qabul qilgan foydasiga. Irqiy o'z-o'zini ta'riflashdan madaniy yoki etnik yo'nalishga o'tishni tushunishning kalitini ushbu sahifada topish mumkin Menorah jurnali 1915 yildan 1925 yilgacha. Bu vaqt ichida Menoraga hissa qo'shganlar a madaniyyahudiylarning irqiy, diniy yoki boshqa qarashlari yahudiylarning o'ziga xosligini yutish va singdirish bilan tahdid qilgan dunyoda yahudiylarni aniqlash vositasi sifatida. Jurnal tomonidan o'rnatilgan menora harakati ideallarini aks ettirgan Horace M. Kallen va boshqalar yahudiylarning madaniy o'ziga xosligini tiklashga yordam berish va xalqlarni aniqlash yoki aniqlash vositasi sifatida irq g'oyasiga qarshi kurashish.^[28]

Siporin (1990) oiladan foydalanadi folklor ning etnik yahudiylar ularning jamoaviy tarixi va uning tarixiy san'at turiga aylanishi haqida. Ular bizga yahudiylar qanday qilib ildiz otish va o'zgarishlardan omon qolganlarini aytib berishadi. Ko'pgina muhojirlarning rivoyatlarida taqdirning o'zboshimchalik xususiyati va yangi madaniyatdagi immigrantlarning ahvoli pasayishi mavzusi mavjud. Aksincha, etnik oilaviy rivoyatlar etnik shaxsni uning hayoti uchun ko'proq boshqarishini va ehtimol yahudiylikni butunlay yo'qotish xavfi borligini ko'rsatishga intiladi. Ba'zi hikoyalar, oila a'zolaridan biri qanday qilib etnik va amerikalik shaxslar o'rtasidagi ziddiyatni muvaffaqiyatli muhokama qilganligini ko'rsatadi.^[29]

1960 yildan keyin xotiralar Holokostbilan birga Olti kunlik urush 1967 yilda yahudiylarni modalashtirishga katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi etnik o'ziga xoslik. Ba'zilarning ta'kidlashicha, Xolokost yahudiylar uchun boshqa ozchiliklar o'zlarini tasdiqlagan davrda ularning etnik o'ziga xosligi muhimligini ta'kidlagan.^[30][31][32]

Siyosat

Nyu-York shahrida, nemis yahudiylari jamoati "shahar atrofida" yaxshi tashkil topgan bir paytda, Sharqiy Evropadan ko'chib kelgan ko'plab yahudiylar Irlandiya va Germaniya katolik qo'shnilari, ayniqsa Demokratik Partiya Siyosatini nazorat qilgan Irlandiya katoliklari bilan "shahar markazida" keskinliklarga duch kelishdi.^[36] vaqtida. Yahudiylar Nyu-Yorkdagi tikuvchilik va igna uyushmalarida o'zlarini muvaffaqiyatli namoyon etishdi. 1930-yillarga kelib ular Nyu-Yorkda eng liberal dasturlarni kuchli qo'llab-quvvatlagan asosiy siyosiy omil bo'lishdi Yangi bitim. Ular asosiy element sifatida davom etishdi Yangi bitim koalitsiyasi, ga alohida yordam berish Fuqarolik huquqlari harakati. 1960-yillarning o'rtalariga kelib, Qora kuch harakati qora tanlilar va yahudiylar o'rtasida tobora ko'proq ajralib turishga sabab bo'ldi, ammo ikkala guruh ham Demokratik lagerda mustahkam qolishdi.^[37]

Oldin Germaniyadan kelgan yahudiy muhojirlari siyosiy jihatdan moyil edilar konservativ, 1880-yillarning boshlarida Sharqiy Evropadan kelgan yahudiylarning to'lqini odatda ko'proq liberal yoki edi chap qanot va siyosiy ko'pchilikka aylandi.^[38] Ko'pchilik Amerikaga sotsialistik tajribasi bilan kelgan, anarxist va kommunistik harakatlar, shuningdek Labor Bund, Sharqiy Evropadan kelib chiqqan. 20-asr boshlarida ko'plab yahudiylar rahbarlik lavozimlariga ko'tarilishdi Amerika ishchilar harakati va 1936 yildan so'ng, chap qanot siyosatida katta rol o'ynagan kasaba uyushmalarini tashkil etishga yordam berdi Demokratik partiya siyosat.^[38]

19-asrning ikkinchi yarmida amerikalik yahudiylar respublikachilarga moyil bo'lishgan bo'lsa-da, aksariyati kamida 1916 yildan beri 55 foizga ovoz berganidan beri demokratlarga ovoz berishdi. Vudro Uilson.^[33]

Ning saylanishi bilan Franklin D. Ruzvelt, Amerika yahudiylari yanada qat'iyroq demokratik ovoz berishdi. Ular 1940 yilgi saylovlarda Ruzveltga 90% ovoz berishdi va 1944 yildan beri bir martagina teng bo'lgan eng yuqori qo'llab-quvvatlovchi vakili. 1948 yilgi saylovlarda yahudiylar demokratni qo'llab-quvvatladilar Garri S. Truman 75% gacha tushdi, 15% esa yangisini qo'llab-quvvatladi Progressive Party.^[33] Lobbi natijasida va yahudiylarning ovozi uchun yaxshiroq raqobatlashishga umid qilib, partiyalarning ikkala asosiy platformasida 1944 yildan beri sionistik tarafdorlar taxtasi bor edi,^[39][40] va yahudiylar davlatini yaratishni qo'llab-quvvatladilar; ammo unchalik katta ta'sir ko'rsatmadi, ammo 90% hanuzgacha respublikachilardan tashqarida ovoz berishmoqda. 1980 yildan tashqari har qanday saylovda Demokratik partiyadan prezidentlikka nomzod yahudiylarning 67 foizdan kam ovozini yutib chiqmagan. (1980 yilda Karter yahudiylarning 45 foiz ovozini oldi. Quyiga qarang.)

1952 va 1956 yilgi saylovlar davomida ular demokratga 60% va undan ko'proq ovoz berishdi Adlai Stivenson, esa General Eisenhower qayta saylangani uchun 40% to'plagan, bu respublikachilar uchun shu kungacha eng yaxshi ko'rsatkich Uorren G. Xarding1920 yilda bu 43%.^[33] 1960 yilda 83 foiz demokratga ovoz bergan Jon F. Kennedi qarshi Richard Niksonva 1964 yilda Amerika yahudiylarining 90% ovoz bergan Lindon Jonson, uning respublikachi raqibi ustidan, asosiy konservativ Barri Goldwater. Xubert Xamfri 1968 yildagi saylovlarda yahudiylarning 81% ovozini to'plab, prezidentlikka qarshi kurashda mag'lubiyatga uchradi Richard Nikson.^[33]

1972 yildagi Niksonni qayta saylash kampaniyasi paytida yahudiy saylovchilari xavotirda edilar Jorj MakGovern Demokratni 65 foizga ma'qullashdi, Nikson esa respublikachilar yahudiylarining qo'llab-quvvatlashini 35 foizdan ikki baravar oshirdi. 1976 yilgi saylovda yahudiy saylovchilari Demokratni qo'llab-quvvatladilar Jimmi Karter amaldagi prezidentga nisbatan 71 foizga Jerald Ford27%, ammo 1980 yildagi Karterni qayta saylash kampaniyasi paytida yahudiy saylovchilari Demokratni juda 45 foiz qo'llab-quvvatlash bilan tark etishdi, respublikachilar esa g'olib bo'lishdi Ronald Reygan 39% to'plagan va 14% mustaqil (sobiq respublikachi) Jon Anderson.^[33][41]

1984 yildagi Reyganni qayta saylash kampaniyasi paytida respublikachi yahudiylarning 31 foiz ovozini saqlab qoldi, 67 foiz demokratlarga ovoz berdi Valter Mondale. 1988 yilgi saylovda yahudiy saylovchilari Demokratni qo'llab-quvvatladilar Maykl Dukakis 64% ga Jorj H. V. Bush hurmatli 35% ovoz bergan, ammo Bushning 1992 yilda qayta saylanish tashabbusi paytida uning yahudiylarning qo'llab-quvvatlashi atigi 11% gacha tushgan, 80% ovoz berganlar Bill Klinton va 9% mustaqillikka ketadi Ross Perot. Klintonning 1996 yildagi qayta saylov kampaniyasi yahudiylarning yuqori qo'llab-quvvatlashini 78% darajasida saqlab, 16% qo'llab-quvvatladi Bob Dole va Perot uchun 3%.^[33][41]

In 2000 yilgi prezident saylovi, Djo Liberman Demokratik partiyadan prezidentlikka nomzod sifatida tanlanganida birinchi partiyaviy chiptada milliy lavozimga qatnashgan birinchi amerikalik yahudiy edi Al Gorvitse-prezidentlikka nomzod. 2000 va 2004 yillardagi saylovlar yahudiylarning demokratlarni qo'llab-quvvatlashini davom ettirdi Al Gor va Jon Kerrikatolik, respublikachilar esa 70-% dan 70% gacha Jorj V.Bush2004 yilda qayta saylangan yahudiylarning qo'llab-quvvatlashi 19% dan 24% gacha ko'tarildi.^[41][42]

In 2008 yilgi prezident saylovi, 78% yahudiylar ovoz berishdi Barak Obama, kim birinchi bo'ldi Afroamerikalik prezident etib saylanish.^[43] Bundan tashqari, yahudiylarning 83% i oq tanli protestantlarning 34% i va oq katoliklarning 47% iga nisbatan ovoz berdi, ammo boshqa dinni tan oluvchilarning 67% i va boshqa dinni tanimaydiganlarning 71% i ham Obamaga ovoz berishdi.^[44]

Fevral oyida 2016 Nyu-Xempshir Demokratik Boshlang'ich, Berni Sanders shtatdagi prezidentlik saylovlarida g'olib bo'lgan birinchi yahudiy nomzodiga aylandi.^[45]

Vaqt o'tishi bilan amerikalik yahudiylar iqtisodiy jihatdan o'sib borar ekan, ba'zi sharhlovchilar^{[iqtibos kerak]} nega yahudiylar shu qadar qat'iy demokrat bo'lib qolmoqdalar va iqtisodiy soddalashgan boshqa guruhlar kabi siyosiy sadoqatlarni markazga yoki o'ng tomonga o'girmadilar, deb hayron bo'lishdi, masalan. Ispanlar va Arab-amerikaliklar, bor.^[46]

Kongress va senat poygalari uchun, 1968 yildan beri amerikalik yahudiylar demokratlarga 70-80% atrofida ovoz berishdi;^[47] 2006 yilgi saylovlar davomida ushbu qo'llab-quvvatlash Demokratik uyga nomzodlarni 87 foizgacha oshirdi.^[48]

Devid Levi Yuli

Senatda xizmat qilgan birinchi amerikalik yahudiy edi Devid Levi Yuli1845–1851 va yana 1855–1861 yillarda xizmat qilgan Florida shtatining birinchi senatori bo'lgan.

112-Kongress boshida AQShning 435 vakili orasida 19 yahudiy bor edi;^[49] 26 demokrat va bitta (Erik Kantor) Respublika. Ushbu a'zolarning aksariyati yahudiy aholisi ko'p bo'lgan qirg'oq shaharlari va chekka shaharlarni vakili bo'lishgan bo'lsa, boshqalari (masalan, Kim Shrier Sietl, Vashington; Jon Yarmut Kentukki shtatining Luisvill shahridan; va Devid Kustoff va Stiv Koen Memfis, Tennessi). Vakillar Palatasida xizmat qilgan yahudiylarning umumiy soni 111-Kongressdagi 31 kishidan kamaydi.^[50] Jon Adler Nyu-Jersidan, Stiv Kagan Viskonsin, Alan Grayson Florida shtati va Ron Klayn Florida shtatidagi barcha qayta saylanish uchun arizalarini yo'qotdilar, Rahm Emanuel Prezident apparati rahbari bo'lish uchun iste'foga chiqdi; va Pol Hodes Nyu-Xempshir shtatidan qayta saylanish uchun qatnashmadi, aksincha (muvaffaqiyatsiz) o'z shtatining Senatdagi ochiq joyiga intildi. Devid Sitsillin Rod-Aylenddan 112-Kongressga yangi saylangan yahudiy amerikalik bo'lgan; u shahar hokimi bo'lgan Dalil. Raqam qachon rad etildi Jeyn Xarman, Entoni Vaynerva Gabrielle Giffords 112-Kongress paytida iste'foga chiqdi.

2014 yil yanvar holatiga ko'ra^[yangilash], Kongressda beshta ochiq gomoseksual erkaklar xizmat qiladi va ikkitasi yahudiydir: Jared Polis Kolorado va Devid Sitsillin Rod-Aylend.

2008 yil noyabr oyida Cantor saylandi Uy ozchilik qamchi, lavozimga tanlangan birinchi yahudiy respublikachi.^[51] 2011 yilda u birinchi yahudiy bo'ldi Ko'pchilik vakillar palatasi rahbari. U 2014 yilgacha ko'pchilikning etakchisi bo'lib ishlagan, respublikachilar partiyasida bo'lib o'tgan asosiy saylovlarda yutqazgandan ko'p o'tmay iste'foga chiqqan.

2013 yilda Pyu amerikalik yahudiylarning 70% i ular bilan aniqlangan yoki unga moyil bo'lganligini aniqladi Demokratik partiya, atigi 22% bilan belgilanadi yoki unga egilib Respublika partiyasi.^[52]

114-Kongressda 9 ta yahudiy bor^[53] 100 orasida AQSh senatorlari: sakkiz demokrat (Maykl Bennet, Richard Blumenthal, Brayan Shats, Benjamin Kardin, Dianne Faynshteyn, Jeki Rozen, Charlz Shumer, Ron Vayden) va Berni Sanders, kim uchun demokrat bo'ldi Prezidentlikka nomzod ammo mustaqil ravishda Senatga qaytib keldi.^[54]

116-Kongressda AQShning 28 yahudiy vakili bor.^[55] 26 nafari demokratlar, 2 nafari respublikachilar. Yahudiy senatorlarining hammasi demokratlar.^[56]

Fuqarolik huquqlari harakatlarida ishtirok etish

Amerika yahudiylari jamoatining a'zolari taniqli ishtirokchilarni o'z ichiga olgan inson huquqlari harakatlar. 20-asr o'rtalarida Amerikaning yahudiylari orasida eng faol ishtirokchilar bo'lgan Fuqarolik huquqlari harakati va feministik harakatlar. Bir qator amerikalik yahudiylar ham kurashda faol shaxslar bo'lishgan Amerikadagi gey huquqlari.

Yoaxim Prins, prezidenti Amerika yahudiylari Kongressi, mashhur paytida Linkoln yodgorligi minbaridan gapirganda quyidagilarni aytib o'tdi Vashingtonda mart 1963 yil 28 avgustda: "Yahudiylar sifatida biz minglab odamlar g'urur bilan ishtirok etadigan ushbu ajoyib namoyishga ikki marotaba tajriba - ruh va tariximizdan biri sifatida qatnashmoqdamiz. ... Yahudiylarning uch yarim ming yillik tarixiy tajribasidan kelib chiqib aytamiz: Bizning qadimiy tariximiz boshlandi qullik va ozodlikka intilish. O'rta asrlarda mening xalqim Evropaning gettolarida ming yil yashagan. ... Aynan shu sabablarga ko'ra bizni nafaqat Amerikaning qora tanli xalqiga hamdardlik va rahmdillik rag'batlantiradi. Bu, avvalo, bunday hamdardlik va hissiyotlardan tashqari, bizning azobli tarixiy tajribamizdan kelib chiqqan to'liq identifikatsiya va hamjihatlik tuyg'usi. "^[57][58]

Holokost

Davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi davrda Amerika yahudiylari jamoasi achchiq va chuqur bo'linib ketishdi va umumiy front tashkil qila olmadilar. Sharqiy Evropadan kelgan yahudiylarning aksariyati buni ma'qullashdi Sionizm, bu ajdodlarning vataniga qaytishni Evropada sodir bo'lgan ta'qib va ​​genotsidni hisobga olgan holda yagona echim deb bilgan. Muhim voqealardan biri, urushning oxirida ko'plab amerikalik yahudiy rahbarlarining to'satdan sionizmga o'tishlari edi.^[59] Holokost sodir bo'layotgani sababli Amerika OAV tomonidan katta e'tiborga olinmadi. Muxbirlar va muharrirlar Evropadan chiqqan vahshiylik haqidagi voqealarga umuman ishonishmadi.^[60]

Holokost Qo'shma Shtatlardagi yahudiylar jamoasiga katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi, ayniqsa 1960 yildan keyin Xolokost ta'limining yaxshilanishi bilan, yahudiylar nima bo'lganini tushunishga harakat qildilar va ayniqsa kelajakka nazar tashlab, uni eslash va u bilan kurashishdi. Ibrohim Joshua Xeschel tushunishga harakat qilganida, ushbu ikkilamchi holatni sarhisob qildi Osvensim"" Javob berishga urinish - bu kufrning oliy kufridir. Isroil bizga Osvensimning azobini tubdan umidsizlikka berib, tarixning o'rmonlarida Xudoning nurlari nurini sezishimizga yordam beradi. "^[61]

Xalqaro ishlar

Uinston Cherchill va Bernard Barux Baruxning uyi oldida mashinaning orqa o'rindig'ida suhbatlashing.

Sionizm kabi rahbarlarni jalb qilgan holda AQShda yaxshi tashkil etilgan harakatga aylandi Louis Brandeis va qayta tiklangan vatan va'dasi 1917 yil Balfur deklaratsiyasi.^[62] Yahudiy amerikaliklar 1930 yillarda norozilik bildirish uchun nemis tovarlarini keng miqyosda boykot qilishdi Natsistlar Germaniyasi. Franklin D. RuzveltNatsistlarga qarshi tashqi siyosati va uni targ'ib qilgani kabi 1930-40 yillarda so'lchi ichki siyosat yahudiylarning kuchli qo'llab-quvvatlashiga ega bo'ldi. Birlashgan Millatlar. Ushbu davrda siyosiy sionizmni qo'llab-quvvatlash, nufuzi tobora ortib borayotgan bo'lsa-da, taxminan 1944–45 yillarda, yahudiylarning muntazam ravishda ommaviy qotilligi haqidagi mish-mishlar va xabarlar paydo bo'lguniga qadar AQShdagi yahudiylar orasida ozchilikning fikri bo'lib qoldi. Natsistlar tomonidan bosib olingan mamlakatlar ning ozod qilinishi bilan jamoatchilikka ma'lum bo'ldi Natsistlar konslagerlari va yo'q qilish lagerlari. Zamonaviy davlatning tashkil topishi Isroil 1948 yilda va uni Amerika hukumati tomonidan tan olinishi (amerika izolyatorlarining e'tirozlariga binoan) uning ichki qo'llab-quvvatlashining ham, Holokost dahshatlarini o'rganishga bo'lgan munosabatining ham belgisi edi.

Ushbu e'tibor yahudiylar jamoatida Isroilga tabiiy yaqinlik va ularni qo'llab-quvvatlashga asoslangan edi. Isroilning tashkil topishi va sionistik harakatning oldinga siljishi bilan bog'liq keyingi va hal qilinmagan ziddiyatlar ham e'tiborni tortmoqda. Quyidagilardan so'ng jonli ichki bahslar boshlandi Olti kunlik urush. Amerika yahudiylari jamoati Isroilning javobiga rozi bo'ladimi yoki yo'qmi degan savolga ikkiga bo'lindi; katta ko'pchilik urushni kerak bo'lganda qabul qilishga kelishdi. Ayniqsa, chap tarafdagi ba'zi yahudiylar uchun keskinlik mavjud edi, ular Isroilni juda Sovetlarga qarshi va Falastinga qarshi.^[63] Xuddi shunday keskinliklar 1977 yilgi saylovlar bilan qo'zg'atilgan Menaxem boshlanadi va ko'tarilish Revizionist siyosati, 1982 yil Livan urushi qismlarining doimiy ma'muriy boshqaruvi G'arbiy Sohil hudud.^[64] 1993 yilda Isroil tomonidan qabul qilinishi bo'yicha kelishmovchilik Oslo shartnomalari Amerika yahudiylari o'rtasida yana bo'linishga sabab bo'ldi;^[65] bu isroilliklar o'rtasida xuddi shunday bo'linishni aks ettirdi va ichidagi parallel yorilishga olib keldi isroilparast lobbiva hatto oxir-oqibat Qo'shma Shtatlarga Isroilni "ko'r" qo'llab-quvvatlashi uchun.^[65] Birlikning har qanday ko'rinishini tark etib, ikkala segment ham alohida targ'ibot va lobbi tashkilotlarini rivojlantira boshladi. Ning liberal tarafdorlari Oslo kelishuvi orqali ishlagan Amerikaliklar hozir tinchlik uchun (APN), Isroil siyosati forumi (IPF) va Isroilda leyboristlar hukumati bilan do'st bo'lgan boshqa guruhlar. Ular Kongressni Amerika Yahudiyligi Kelishuv ortida turganiga ishontirishga harakat qildilar va ma'muriyatning yangi paydo bo'lganlarga yordam berish harakatlarini himoya qildilar Falastin ma'muriyati (PA), shu jumladan moliyaviy yordam va'dalari. Jamiyat fikri uchun kurashda IPF jamoatchilik orasida Osloga keng qo'llab-quvvatlanishini ko'rsatadigan bir qator so'rovnomalarni o'tkazdi.

Osloga qarshi, konservativ guruhlar ittifoqi, masalan Amerikaning sionistik tashkiloti (ZOA), Amerikaliklar xavfsiz Isroil uchun (AFSI) va Yahudiy milliy xavfsizlik ishlari instituti (JINSA) liberal yahudiylarning kuchini muvozanatlashga urindi. 1993 yil 10 oktyabrda Falastin-Isroil kelishuviga qarshi chiquvchilar Xavfsiz Isroil uchun Amerika etakchilari konferentsiyasiBu erda ular Isroil "qurolli bezori" ga sajda qilayotgani haqida ogohlantirgan va "o'n uchinchi sentyabr - bu sharmandalik bilan yashaydigan sana" deb bashorat qilgan. Ba'zi sionistlar, shuningdek, ko'pincha qattiq so'zlar bilan Bosh vazirni tanqid qildilar Ijak Rabin va Shimon Peres, uning tashqi ishlar vaziri va tinchlik kelishuvining bosh me'mori. Jamiyat shu qadar qattiq bo'linib ketganligi sababli, AIPAC va prezidentlarning konferentsiyasi milliy yahudiylarning konsensusini namoyish etish vazifasi bo'lib, tobora qarama-qarshiliklarga uchragan nutqni fuqarolik darajasida saqlashga intildi. Ushbu keskinliklarni aks ettirgan holda, Ibrohim Foksman dan Tuhmatga qarshi liga konferentsiya tomonidan ZOA ning og'zi yomonligi uchun uzr so'rashi so'raldi Morton Klein. O'zining tashkiliy ko'rsatmalariga binoan jamoat nutqini boshqarishga bag'ishlangan konferentsiya ba'zi pravoslavlarning vakillarini hujum qilgani uchun istamay tsenzuraga oldi. Colette Avital, Ishchilar tomonidan tayinlangan Isroil Bosh konsul Nyu-Yorkda va tinchlik jarayoni ushbu versiyasining ashaddiy tarafdori.^[66]

Demografiya

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlaridagi yahudiy aholisining ulushi, 2000 yil

2011 yilga kelib, Qo'shma Shtatlarning yahudiy aholisi dunyodagi ikkinchi o'rinda turadi, bu Isroilnikidan ustundir.

Aholining aniq soni yahudiylarning hisobga olinishiga qarab farqlanadi halaxic mulohazalar yoki dunyoviy, siyosiy va ajdodlar identifikatsiyasi omillar. AQShda 2001 yilga kelib taxminan to'rt million yahudiylik tarafdorlari bo'lgan, bu AQSh aholisining taxminan 1,4%. Ga ko'ra Yahudiy agentligi, 2017 yil davomida Isroilda 6,5 ​​million yahudiy yashagan (dunyodagi yahudiy aholisining 49,3%), Qo'shma Shtatlarda esa 5,3 million (40,2%).^[67]

Gallup va Pew tadqiqot markazining xulosalariga ko'ra, "AQSh kattalar aholisining maksimal 2,2 foizida yahudiylarning o'zini o'zi aniqlashi uchun ba'zi asoslar mavjud".^[68]

2012 yilda demograflar Amerikaning asosiy yahudiy aholisini (diniy va dindor bo'lmaganlarni ham hisobga olgan holda) 5,425,000 (yoki 2012 yilda AQSh aholisining 1,73%) tashkil etishini taxmin qilishdi, bunga avvalgi yuqori baholardagi uslubiy muvaffaqiyatsizliklar sabab bo'lgan.^[69] Boshqa manbalarda bu raqam 6,5 million atrofida ekanligi aytilmoqda.

The Amerika yahudiylari yilnomasi bo'yicha aholini o'rganish amerikalik yahudiylar sonini 6,4 million kishiga yoki umumiy aholining 2,1 foiziga tenglashtirgan edi. Bu ko'rsatkich avvalgi 2000-2001 yyudiylar milliy aholisi hisob-kitobi bo'yicha 5.2 million yahudiy tomonidan o'tkazilgan keng ko'lamli so'rov natijalariga qaraganda ancha yuqori. Tomonidan chop etilgan 2007 yildagi tadqiqot Shtaynxardt ijtimoiy tadqiqotlar instituti (SSRI) da Brandeis universiteti Ushbu ikkala raqam yahudiy kelib chiqishi bo'lgan 7.0-7.4 million potentsial amerikaliklar bilan kam baholanishi mumkin degan dalillarni keltiradi.^[70] Ammo bu yuqori taxminlarga so'rovda qatnashgan shaxslar o'rniga barcha yahudiy bo'lmagan oila a'zolari va oila a'zolari kiritilgan.^[69]

Yahudiy millatiga mansub amerikaliklar aholisi demografik jihatdan keksaygan tarkibi va avlodlar almashinishidan ancha past tug'ilish darajasi bilan ajralib turadi.^[69]

The Yahudiylar bo'yicha milliy tadqiqot 1990 yil 4,5 million yahudiydan o'z mazhablarini aniqlashlarini so'ragan. Milliy jami 38% ga aloqadorligini ko'rsatdi An'anani isloh qilish, 35% edi Konservativ, 6% edi Pravoslav, 1% edi Rekonstruktsionistlar, 10% o'zlarini boshqa an'analar bilan bog'lashgan va 10% o'zlarini "shunchaki yahudiy" deb aytishgan.^[71] 2013 yilda Pew Research yahudiy aholisi o'rtasida o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra amerikalik yahudiylarning 35 foizi islohot, 18 foizi konservator, 10 foizi pravoslav, 6 foizi boshqa mazhablar bilan tanishgan va 30 foizi mazhab bilan tanishmagan.^[72]

2013 yilda o'tkazilgan keyingi so'rov natijalariga ko'ra barcha yahudiylarning 14% islohot jamoalariga, 11% konservatorlarga, 10% pravoslav jamoalarga va 3% boshqa jamoalarga aloqador bo'lgan.

Manzil

Amerikalik yahudiylarning 90-95% bo'lgan Ashkenazi yahudiylari,^[8][7] birinchi va atrofida joylashdilar Nyu-York shahri; so'nggi o'n yilliklarda ko'pchilik ko'chib keldi Janubiy Florida, Los Anjeles Janub va G'arbdagi boshqa yirik metropolitenlar. Nyu-York, Los-Anjeles va Mayamidagi metropolitenlarda dunyodagi yahudiylarning qariyb to'rtdan bir qismi yashaydi.^[73]

Demograflar va sotsiologlar tomonidan nashr etilgan tadqiqotga ko'ra Ira Sheskin va Arnold Dashefskiy, 2015 yilda yahudiy aholisining taqsimlanishi quyidagicha:^[74]

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51

Shtatlar va hududlar Amerika Yahudiylar (2015)[74] Pct Yahudiy[a]  Alabama 8,800 0.18%  Alyaska 6,175 0.84%  Arizona 106,300 1.58%  Arkanzas 1,725 0.06%  Kaliforniya 1,232,690 3.18%  Kolorado 103,020 1.92%  Konnektikut 117,850 3.28%  Delaver 15,100 1.61%  Kolumbiya okrugi 28,000 4.25%  Florida 651,510 3.28% Gruziya 128,420 1.27%  Gavayi 7,280 0.51%  Aydaho 2,225 0.14%  Illinoys 297,435 2.31%  Indiana 17,220 0.26%  Ayova 6,170 0.20%  Kanzas 17,425 0.60%  Kentukki 11,300 0.26%  Luiziana 10,675 0.23%  Meyn 13,890 1.04%  Merilend 238,200 3.99%  Massachusets shtati 274,680 4.07%  Michigan 83,155 0.84%  Minnesota 45,750 0.84% Missisipi 1,575 0.05%  Missuri 64,275 1.06%  Montana 1,350 0.13%  Nebraska 6,150 0.33%  Nevada 76,300 2.69%  Nyu-Xempshir 10,120 0.76%  Nyu-Jersi 523,950 5.86%  Nyu-Meksiko 12,725 0.61%  Nyu York 1,759,570 8.91%  Shimoliy Karolina 35,435 0.36%  Shimoliy Dakota 400 0.05%  Ogayo shtati 147,715 1.27%  Oklaxoma 4,625 0.12%  Oregon 40,650 1.02%  Pensilvaniya 293,240 2.29%  Rod-Aylend 18,750 1.78%  Janubiy Karolina 13,820 0.29%  Janubiy Dakota 250 0.03%  Tennessi 19,600 0.30%  Texas 158,505 0.59%  Yuta 5,650 0.19%  Vermont 5,985 0.96%  Virjiniya 95,695 1.15%  Vashington 72,085 1.02%  G'arbiy Virjiniya 2,310 0.12%  Viskonsin 33,055 0.57%  Vayoming 1,150 0.20% Jami 6,829,930 2.14%

Yahudiylarning muhim aholi punktlari

The Nyu-York shahri metropoliteni yahudiy-amerikaliklarning eng yirik aholisi yashaydi.

Garchi Nyu-York shahri metropoliteni dunyodagi ikkinchi yirik yahudiy aholi markazi ( Tel-Aviv metropoliteni Isroilda),^[73] The Mayami metropoliteni jon boshiga to'g'ri keladigan yahudiy aholisi sal kattaroq (metropoliten Nyu-Yorkdagi 9,3% ga nisbatan 9,9%). Bir qator boshqa yirik shaharlarda yahudiy jamoalari, shu jumladan Los Anjeles, Baltimor, Boston, Chikago, San-Fransisko va Filadelfiya. Ko'plab metropolitenlarda yahudiy oilalarining aksariyati shahar atrofi hududlarida yashaydilar. The Katta Feniks 2002 yilda bu hududda 83000 ga yaqin yahudiylar yashagan va tez sur'atlar bilan o'sib bormoqda.^[76] AQShda aholi jon boshiga to'g'ri keladigan eng katta yahudiy aholisi Kiryas Joel Village, Nyu-York (93% dan ko'prog'i uyda gaplashadigan tilga asoslangan),^[77] Shahar Beverli-Xillz, Kaliforniya (61%),^[78] Leykvud shaharchasi, Nyu-Jersi (59%),^[79] Kiryas Joel va Lakewood singari ikkita hududda ultra-pravoslav yahudiylarning yuqori konsentratsiyasi va pravoslav bo'lmagan yahudiylarning yuqori kontsentratsiyasiga ega bo'lgan Beverly Hillsning birlashtirilgan hududi mavjud.

Isroilning AQShga ko'chishi fenomeni ko'pincha nomlanadi Yerida. The Amerikadagi Isroil muhojirlar jamoasi kamroq tarqalgan. Qo'shma Shtatlardagi muhim isroillik muhojirlar jamoalari Nyu-York shahridagi metropoliten, Los-Anjeles, Mayami va Chikagoda joylashgan.^[80]

• The Iqtisodiy hamkorlik va taraqqiyot tashkiloti ming kishi boshiga 2,9 kishini tashkil etgan "chet elga chiqish stavkasi" ni hisoblab chiqdi va bu Isroilni chet elga chiquvchilar stavkalari orasida 175 OECD 2005 yilda tekshirilgan mamlakatlar.^[81]

2001 yilgi majburiyatlarga muvofiq^[82] ning Yahudiylar bo'yicha milliy tadqiqot, 4.3 million amerikalik yahudiylar diniy yoki madaniy bo'lsin, yahudiylar jamoasi bilan qandaydir kuchli aloqaga ega.

Yahudiy amerikaliklarning tarqalishi

Shimoliy Amerika yahudiylari ma'lumotlar bankining ma'lumotlariga ko'ra^[83] 104 okrug va mustaqil shaharlar 2011 yildan boshlab^[yangilash] eng yirik yahudiy jamoalari bilan, aholining foiziga nisbatan:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104

Mamlakatlar Shtat Yahudiylar Pct Yahudiy Roklend  Nyu York 91,300 29.3% Shohlar  Nyu York 561,000 22.4% Nassau  Nyu York 230,000 17.2% Palm-plyaj  Florida 208,850 15.8% Nyu York  Nyu York 240,000 15.1% Vestchester  Nyu York 136,000 14.3% Montgomeri  Merilend 113,000 11.6% Okean  Nyu-Jersi 61,500 10.7% Marin  Kaliforniya 26,100 10.3% Bergen  Nyu-Jersi 92,500 10.2% Monmut  Nyu-Jersi 64,000 10.2% Broward  Florida 170,700 9.8% Sallivan  Nyu York 7,425 9.6% Norfolk  Massachusets shtati 63,600 9.5% Malika  Nyu York 198,000 8.9% apelsin  Nyu York 32,300 8.7% Alp tog'lari  Kaliforniya 101 8.6% San-Fransisko  Kaliforniya 65,800 8.2% Montgomeri  Pensilvaniya 64,500 8.1% Midlseks  Massachusets shtati 113,800 7.6% Baltimor  Merilend 60,000 7.5% Ko'l  Illinoys 51,300 7.3% Richmond  Nyu York 34,000 7.3% Santa Klara  Kaliforniya 128,000 7.2% Arlington  Virjiniya 14,000 6.7% San-Mateo  Kaliforniya 47,800 6.7% Buklar  Pensilvaniya 41,400 6.6% Ventura  Kaliforniya 54,000 6.6% Midlseks  Nyu-Jersi 52,000 6.4% Kamden  Nyu-Jersi 32,100 6.2% Esseks  Nyu-Jersi 48,800 6.2% Falls cherkovi  Virjiniya 750 6.1% Xovard  Merilend 17,200 6.0% Morris  Nyu-Jersi 29,700 6.0% Somerset  Nyu-Jersi 19,000 5.9% Suffolk  Nyu York 86,000 5.8% Kuyahoga  Ogayo shtati 70,300 5.5% Fulton  Gruziya 50,000 5.4% Los Anjeles  Kaliforniya 518,000 5.3% Ozauki  Viskonsin 4,500 5.2% Feyrfild  Konnektikut 47,200 5.1% Oklend  Michigan 61,200 5.1% Baltimor  Merilend 30,900 5.0% Sent-Luis  Missuri 49,600 5.0% Nantucket  Massachusets shtati 500 4.9% Denver  Kolorado 28,700 4.8% Sonoma  Kaliforniya 23,100 4.8% Ittifoq  Nyu-Jersi 25,800 4.8% Vashington, Kolumbiya  Vashington, Kolumbiya 28,000 4.7% Filadelfiya  Pensilvaniya 66,800 4.4% Pitkin  Kolorado 750 4.4% Arapaxo  Kolorado 24,600 4.3% Atlantika  Nyu-Jersi 11,700 4.3% Geauga  Ogayo shtati 4,000 4.3% Mayami-Deyd  Florida 106,300 4.3% Chester  Pensilvaniya 20,900 4.2% Kuk  Illinoys 220,200 4.2% Boulder  Kolorado 12,000 4.1% Passaik  Nyu-Jersi 20,000 4.0% Alameda  Kaliforniya 59,100 3.9% Albani  Nyu York 12,000 3.9% Bronks  Nyu York 54,000 3.9% Putnam  Nyu York 3,900 3.9% Delaver  Pensilvaniya 21,000 3.8% Klark  Nevada 72,300 3.7% Suffolk  Massachusets shtati 27,000 3.7% DeKalb  Gruziya 25,000 3.6% Fairfax  Virjiniya 38,900 3.6% Iskandariya  Virjiniya 4,900 3.5% Dutchess  Nyu York 10,000 3.4% Napa  Kaliforniya 4,600 3.4% Schenectady  Nyu York 5,200 3.4% Allegheny  Pensilvaniya 40,500 3.3% Berkshir  Massachusets shtati 4,300 3.3% Fairfax  Virjiniya 750 3.3% Xartford  Konnektikut 29,600 3.3% Gil  Gruziya 101 3.2% Olster  Nyu York 5,900 3.2% Kontra Kosta  Kaliforniya 32,100 3.1% Nyu-Xeyven  Konnektikut 27,100 3.1% Esseks  Massachusets shtati 22,300 3.0% Burlington  Nyu-Jersi 12,900 2.9% San-Diego  Kaliforniya 89,000 2.9% Sasseks  Nyu-Jersi 4,300 2.9% Jonson  Kanzas 15,000 2.8% apelsin  Kaliforniya 83,750 2.8% Xemilton  Ogayo shtati 21,400 2.7% Multnomah  Oregon 20,000 2.7% Pinellalar  Florida 25,000 2.7% Monro  Nyu York 19,000 2.6% Sarasota  Florida 9,950 2.6% Bromfild  Kolorado 1,400 2.5% Kobb  Gruziya 17,300 2.5% Kollier  Florida 8,000 2.5% Hennepin  Minnesota 29,300 2.5% Mercer  Nyu-Jersi 9,000 2.5% Cumberland  Meyn 6,775 2.4% Seminole  Florida 10,000 2.4% Cherokee  Gruziya 5,000 2.3% Kasset  Aydaho 101 2.3% Gersoglar  Massachusets shtati 300 2.3% Xempden  Massachusets shtati 10,600 2.3% Santa-Kruz  Kaliforniya 6,000 2.3% Santa Fe  Nyu-Meksiko 3,300 2.3%

Assimilyatsiya va aholining o'zgarishi

Ushbu parallel mavzular Amerika yahudiylari jamoatining g'ayrioddiy iqtisodiy, siyosiy va ijtimoiy muvaffaqiyatlarini engillashtirdi, shuningdek keng tarqalishiga hissa qo'shdi. madaniy assimilyatsiya.^[84] So'nggi paytlarda, muvofiqligi va darajasi assimilyatsiya zamonaviy amerikalik yahudiylar hamjamiyatida ikkalasi bilan ham muhim va bahsli masalaga aylandi siyosiy va diniy skeptiklar.^[85]

Yahudiylarning hammasi ham buni rad etmasa ham o'zaro nikoh, yahudiy jamoasining ko'plab a'zolari yuqori darajadan xavotirga tushishdi dinlararo nikoh natijada Amerika yahudiylari jamoasining yo'q bo'lib ketishiga olib keladi. Nikohlar o'rtasidagi stavkalar 1950 yilda taxminan 6% dan 1974 yilda 25% gacha ko'tarildi,^[86] 2000 yilda taxminan 40-50% gacha.^[87] 2013 yilga kelib, pravoslav bo'lmagan yahudiylarning nikohlararo nisbati 71 foizga ko'tarildi.^[88] Bu yahudiylar jamoasida tug'ilishning nisbatan past ko'rsatkichi bilan birgalikda 1990 yillarda Qo'shma Shtatlar yahudiylari sonining 5 foizga kamayishiga olib keldi. Bunga qo'shimcha ravishda, umumiy Amerika aholisi bilan taqqoslaganda, Amerika yahudiylari jamoati biroz kattaroqdir.

O'zaro turmush qurgan juftlarning uchdan bir qismi o'z farzandlariga yahudiy tarbiya beradilar va bunday qilish ko'pincha yahudiy aholisi ko'p bo'lgan joylarda o'z farzandlarini tarbiyalayotgan o'zaro turmush qurgan oilalarda uchraydi.^[89] Masalan, Boston hududi, o'zaro nikohdagi bolalarning taxminan 60% yahudiylar tarbiyasida ekanligi bilan ajralib turadi, ya'ni o'zaro nikoh to'rga hissa qo'shadi. kattalashtirish; ko'paytirish yahudiylar soni bo'yicha.^[90] Ba'zi bolalar o'zaro nikoh orqali tarbiyalanganlar yahudiy ildizlarini qayta kashf eting va qamrab oling o'zlari uylanib, farzand ko'rganlarida.

Assimilyatsiya davom etayotgan tendentsiyalardan farqli o'laroq, Amerika yahudiylaridagi ba'zi jamoalar, masalan Pravoslav yahudiylar, tug'ilish darajasi ancha yuqori va o'zaro nikohlar darajasi past va ular tez o'sib bormoqda. Pravoslav bo'lgan yahudiy ibodatxonasi a'zolarining ulushi 1971 yildagi 11% dan 2000 yilda 21% gacha ko'tarildi, yahudiylarning umumiy soni esa kamaydi.^[91] 2000 yilda "ultra-pravoslav" deb nomlangan 360,000 (Haredi) AQShdagi yahudiylar (7,2%).^[92] 2006 yildagi ko'rsatkich 468000 (9,4%) ga baholanmoqda.^[92] Pyu markazining ma'lumotlari shuni ko'rsatadiki, 2013 yilga kelib, 18 yoshgacha bo'lgan amerikalik yahudiylarning 27 foizi pravoslav oilalarida yashaydilar, bu 18 yoshdan 29 yoshgacha bo'lgan yahudiylarning keskin o'sishi, ularning atigi 11 foizi pravoslavlardir. Nyu-Yorkdagi UJA-Federatsiyasi Nyu-York shahri hududidagi yahudiy bolalarining 60% pravoslav uylarida yashashlarini xabar qilmoqda. Iqtisod qilish va bo'lishishdan tashqari, ko'plab ultra pravoslav jamoalari ularning tug'ilish darajasi va ko'p bolali oilalarini qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun hukumat yordamiga bog'liq. Hasidik qishlog'i Nyu-York, Nyu-York bo'limni oladi 8 mintaqaning qolgan qismidan yuqori stavka bo'yicha uy-joy subsidiyalari va Hasidic qishlog'idagi aholining yarmi Kiryas Joel, Nyu-York oziq-ovqat markalarini, uchinchisi Medicaid-ni oladi.^[93]

Amerikalik yahudiylarning qariyb yarmi dindor deb hisoblanadi. Ushbu 2 million 831 ming yahudiy aholisining 92 foizini tashkil qiladi ispan tilidan tashqari oq, 5% Ispancha (Ko'pincha Argentina, Venesuela yoki Kubadan), 1% Osiyo (Ko'pincha Buxoriy va Fors yahudiylari), 1% qora va 1% Boshqalar (aralash poyga va boshqalar). Deyarli bu ko'plab diniy bo'lmagan yahudiylar Qo'shma Shtatlarda mavjud.^[94]

Kichik guruhlar

Amerika yahudiylari va irqi

Ba'zi amerikalik yahudiylar oq, boshqa amerikalik yahudiylar esa faqatgina Yahudiy.^[98] Bir nechta sharhlovchilar "ko'plab amerikalik yahudiylar o'zlarining ambivalentsiyasini saqlab qolishgan" oqlik".^[99] Karen Brodkin bu ambivalentsiyani potentsial yo'qotish haqida xavotirga asoslangan deb tushuntiradi Yahudiy kimligi, ayniqsa intellektual elita tashqarisida.^[100] Shunga o'xshab, Kennet Markus boshqa olimlar tomonidan qayd etilgan bir qator noaniq madaniy hodisalarni kuzatib boradi va "oqlik qoplamasi amerikalik yahudiylarning irqiy qurilishini aniq tasdiqlamagan" degan xulosaga keladi.^[101] Amerikalik yahudiylar va oq tanli ko'pchilikning o'zaro munosabatlari "murakkab" deb ta'riflanishda davom etmoqda.^[102] Ko'plab amerikaliklar oq millatchilar yahudiylarni oq tanli bo'lmaganlar kabi ko'rish.^[103]

2013 yilda, Pyu tadqiqot markazi"s Yahudiy amerikaliklar portreti ularning so'roviga javob bergan yahudiylarning 90% dan ko'prog'i o'zlarini ta'riflaganligini aniqladi ispan bo'lmagan oq tanlilar, 2% sifatida qora, 3% sifatida Ispanchava boshqa irqiy yoki etnik kelib chiqishlarning 2%.^[104]

Afro-amerikalik yahudiylar

Amerika yahudiylari jamoasiga afroamerikalik yahudiylar va boshqa amerikaliklar kiradi Afrikadan kelib chiqqan yahudiylar, istisno qiladigan ta'rif Shimoliy Afrika yahudiy Hozirgi vaqtda AQSh aholini ro'yxatga olish ro'yxati sifatida tasniflangan amerikaliklar oq (garchi 2020 yilgi ro'yxatga olish uchun Aholini ro'yxatga olish byurosi tomonidan yangi toifani tavsiya qilingan bo'lsa ham).^[105] Qo'shma Shtatlarda kelib chiqishi afrikalik bo'lgan amerikalik yahudiylar sonini taxmin qilish 20000 kishidan iborat^[106] 200000 gacha.^[107] Afrikadan kelib chiqqan yahudiylar barcha amerikaliklarga tegishli Yahudiy mazhablari. Boshqa yahudiy hamkasblari singari, ba'zi qora tanli yahudiylar ham ateistlar.

Afro-amerikalik taniqli yahudiylar orasida Lenni Kravits, Liza Bonet, Semmi Devis, kichik, Rashida Jons, Yaphet Kotto, Jordan Farmar, Teylor Mays, Deyvid Diggs, Doja mushuki, Tiffani Xaddisva ravvinlar Qog'ozlar Funnye va Alysa Stanton.

Afrikadan kelib chiqqan amerikalik yahudiylar va boshqa amerikalik yahudiylar o'rtasidagi munosabatlar umuman samimiydir.^{[iqtibos kerak]} Ammo afro-amerikaliklar orasida o'zlarini emas, balki boshqa yahudiylarni qadimgi avlodlarning haqiqiy avlodi deb biladigan qora tanli ibroniy isroilliklarning ozchilik qismi bilan kelishmovchiliklar mavjud. Isroilliklar. Qora ibroniycha isroilliklar odatda asosiy yahudiylar jamoatining a'zolari deb hisoblanmaydi, chunki ular rasmiy ravishda yahudiylikni qabul qilmaganlar va boshqa yahudiylar bilan etnik jihatdan qarindosh emaslar. Shunday guruhlardan biri Quddusdagi afrikalik ibroniy isroilliklar, Isroilga hijrat qildi va huquq berildi doimiy yashash u erda maqom.^[108]

Ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy

Ta'lim yahudiy shaxsiyatining bir qismi sifatida katta rol o'ynaydi; as Jewish culture puts a special premium on it and stresses the importance of cultivation of intellectual pursuits, scholarship and learning, American Jews as a group tend to be better educated and earn more than Americans as a whole.^{[109][110][111][112][113]} Jewish Americans also have an average of 14.7 years of schooling making them the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the United States.^[114][115]

Forty-four percent (55% of Yahudiylarni isloh qilish) report family incomes of over $100,000 compared to 19% of all Americans, with the next highest group being Hindular at 43%.^[116][117] And while 27% of Americans have a four-year university or oliy o'quv yurtidan keyingi ta'lim, fifty-nine percent (66% of Yahudiylarni isloh qilish) of American Jews have, the second highest of any religious group after American Hindus.^{[116][118][119]} 75% of American Jews have achieved some form of o'rta maktabdan keyingi ta'lim if two-year vocational and community college diplomas and certificates are also included.^{[120][121][122][115]}

31% of American Jews hold a aspirantura; this figure is compared with the general American population where 11% of Americans hold a graduate degree.^[116] White collar professional jobs have been attractive to Jews and much of the community tend to take up professional white collar careers requiring tertiary education involving formal credentials where the respectability and reputability of professional jobs is highly prized within Jewish culture. While 46% of Americans work in professional and managerial jobs, 61% of American Jews work as professionals, many of whom are highly educated, salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed in management, professional, and related occupations such as engineering, science, medicine, investment banking, finance, law, and academia.^[123]

Much of the Jewish American community lead middle class lifestyles.^[124] While the median household net worth of the typical American family is $99,500, among American Jews the figure is $443,000.^[125][126] In addition, the median Jewish American income is estimated to be in the range of $97,000 to $98,000, nearly twice as high the American national median.^[127] Either of these two statistics may be sarosimaga tushdi by the fact that the Jewish population is on average older than other religious groups in the country, with 51% of polled adults over the age of 50 compared to 41% nationally.^[118] Older people tend to both have higher income and be more highly educated. By 2016, Modern Orthodox Jews had a median household income of $158,000, while Pravoslavlarni oching Jews had a median household income at $185,000 (compared to the American median household income of $59,000 for 2016).^[128]

As a whole, American and Canadian Jews donate more than $9 billion a year to xayriya. This reflects Jewish traditions of supporting social services as a way of living out the dictates of Jewish law. Most of the charities that benefit are not specifically Jewish organizations.^[129]

While the median income of Jewish Americans is high, there are still small pockets of poverty. In the New York area, there are approximately 560,000 Jews living in poor or near-poor households, representing about 20% of the New York metropolitan Jewish community. Most affected are children, the elderly, immigrants from the former Soviet Union and Orthodox families.^[130]

According to analysis by Gallup, American Jews have the highest farovonlik of any ethnic or religious group in America.^[131][132]

The great majority of school-age Jewish students attend public schools, although Jewish day schools and yeshivas are to be found throughout the country. Jewish cultural studies va Ibroniy tili instruction is also commonly offered at synagogues in the form of supplementary Hebrew schools or Sunday schools.

From the early 1900s until the 1950s, quota systems were imposed at elite colleges and universities particularly in the Northeast, as a response to the growing number of children of recent Jewish immigrants; these limited the number of Jewish students accepted, and greatly reduced their previous attendance. Jewish enrollment at Cornell's School of Medicine fell from 40% to 4% between the world wars, and Harvard's fell from 30% to 4%.^[133] Before 1945, only a few Jewish professors were permitted as instructors at elite universities. In 1941, for example, antisemitism drove Milton Fridman from a non-tenured assistant professorship at the Viskonsin universiteti - Medison.^[134] Harry Levin became the first Jewish full professor in the Garvard English department in 1943, but the Economics department decided not to hire Pol Samuelson in 1948. Harvard hired its first Jewish biochemists in 1954.^[135]

Ga binoan Clark Kerr, Martin Meyerson in 1965 became the first Jew to serve, albeit temporarily, as the leader of a major American tadqiqot universiteti.^[136] That year, Meyerson served as acting chancellor of the Berkli Kaliforniya universiteti, but was unable to obtain a permanent appointment as a result of a combination of tactical errors on his part and antisemitism on the UC Board of Regents.^[136] Meyerson served as the president of the Pensilvaniya universiteti from 1970 to 1981.

By 1986, a third of the presidents of the elite undergraduate final clubs at Harvard were Jewish.^[134] Rick Levin was president of Yale University from 1993 to 2013, Judit Rodin was president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1994 to 2004 (and is currently president of the Rokfeller jamg'armasi), Paul Samuelson's nephew, Lourens Summers, was president of Garvard universiteti from 2001 until 2006, and Harold Shapiro ning prezidenti edi Princeton universiteti from 1992 until 2000.

American Jews at American higher education institutions

Din

Jewishness in the United States is considered an etnik o'ziga xoslik as well as a religious one. Qarang Etnik diniy guruh.

US serviceman lighting a Menorah in observance of the first day of Hanuka

Observances and engagement

Jewish religious practice in America is quite varied. Among the 4.3 million American Jews described as "strongly connected" to Judaism, over 80% report some sort of active engagement with Judaism,^[141] ranging from attendance at daily prayer services on one end of the spectrum to as little as attendance Passover Seders or lighting Hanuka candles on the other.

2003 yil Xarris so'rovi found that 16% of American Jews go to the synagogue at least once a month, 42% go less frequently but at least once a year, and 42% go less frequently than once a year.^[142]

The survey found that of the 4.3 million strongly connected Jews, 46% belong to a synagogue. Among those households who belong to a synagogue, 38% are members of Islohot synagogues, 33% Konservativ, 22% Pravoslav, 2% Qayta qurish, and 5% other types. An'anaga ko'ra, Sefardi va Mizrahi yahudiylari do not have different branches (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, etc.) but usually remain observant and religious. The survey discovered that Jews in the Shimoli-sharq va O'rta g'arbiy are generally more observant than Jews in the South or West. Reflecting a trend also observed among other religious groups, Jews in the Northwestern United States are typically the least observant.

In recent years, there has been a noticeable trend of secular American Jews returning to a more observant, in most cases, Orthodox, lifestyle. Such Jews are called baalei teshuva ("returners", see also Yahudiylikdagi tavba).^{[iqtibos kerak]}

2008 yil Amerika diniy identifikatsiyasi bo'yicha so'rov found that around 3.4 million American Jews call themselves diniy – out of a general Jewish population of about 5.4 million. The number of Jews who identify themselves as only culturally Jewish has risen from 20% in 1990 to 37% in 2008, according to the study. In the same period, the number of all US adults who said they had no religion rose from 8% to 15%. Jews are more likely to be secular than Americans in general, the researchers said. About half of all US Jews – including those who consider themselves religiously observant – claim in the survey that they have a secular worldview and see no contradiction between that outlook and their faith, according to the study's authors. Researchers attribute the trends among American Jews to the high rate of intermarriage and "disaffection from Judaism" in the United States.^[143]

About one-sixth of American Jews maintain kosher dietary standards.^[144]

Diniy e'tiqodlar

American Jews are more likely to be ateist yoki agnostik than most Americans, especially so compared with Protestantlar yoki Katoliklar. A 2003 poll found that while 79% of Americans believe in God, only 48% of American Jews do, compared with 79% and 90% for Catholics and Protestants respectively. While 66% of Americans said they were "absolutely certain" of God's existence, 24% of American Jews said the same. And though 9% of Americans believe there is no God (8% Katolik and 4% Protestant), 19% of American Jews believe God does not exist.^[142]

A 2009 Harris Poll showed American Jews as the religious group most accepting of evolyutsiya, with 80% believing in evolution, compared to 51% for Catholics, 32% for Protestants, and 16% of born-again Christians.^[145] They were also less likely to believe in supernatural phenomena such as mo''jizalar, farishtalar, yoki jannat.

A 2013 Pew Research Center report found that 1.7 million American Jewish adults, 1.6 million of whom were raised in Jewish homes or had Jewish ancestry, identified as Nasroniylar yoki Messianic Jews but also consider themselves ethnically Jewish. Another 700,000 American Christian adults considered themselves "Jews by affinity" or "grafted-in" Jews.^[146][147]

Buddizm

Jews are overrepresented in Amerika buddizmi specifically among those whose parents are not Buddist, and without Buddhist heritage, with between one fifth^[148] and 30% of all American Buddhists identifying as Jewish^[149] though only 2% of Americans are Jewish. Taxallus Jubus, an increasing^{[iqtibos kerak]} number of American Jews have begun adopting Buddhist spiritual practice, while at the same time continuing to identify with and practice Judaism. Notable American Jewish Buddhists include: Robert Dauni kichik^[150] Allen Ginsberg,^[151] Linda Pritzker,^[152] Jonathan F.P. Gul,^[153] Goldi Xon^[154] va qizi Keyt Xadson, Stiven Sigal, Adam Yauch of the rap group Beastie Boysva Garri Shandling. Film makers the Coen Brothers have been influenced by Buddhism as well for a time.^[155]

Contemporary politics

Today, American Jews are a distinctive and influential group in the nation's politics. Jeffrey S. Helmreich writes that the ability of American Jews to effect this through political or financial clout is overestimated,^[157] that the primary influence lies in the group's voting patterns.^[41]

"Jews have devoted themselves to politics with almost religious fervor," writes Mitchell Bard, who adds that Jews have the highest percentage saylovchilarning faolligi of any ethnic group (84% reported being registered to vote^[158]).

Though the majority (60–70%) of the country's Jews identify as Democratic, Jews span the political spectrum, with those at higher levels of observance being far more likely to vote Republican than their less observant and secular counterparts.^[159]

Florence Kahn first Jewish woman elected and first woman to be reelected.

Owing to high Democratic identification in the 2008 United States Presidential Election, 78% of Jews voted for Democrat Barak Obama versus 21% for Republican Jon Makkeyn, despite Republican attempts to connect Obama to Muslim and pro-Palestinian causes.^[160] It has been suggested that running mate Sara Peylin's conservative views on social issues may have nudged Jews away from the McCain–Palin ticket.^[41][160] In 2012 yil AQSh prezident saylovi, 69% of Jews voted for the Democratic incumbent President Obama.^[161]

In 2019, after the 2016 election of Donald Tramp, poll data from the Jewish Electorate Institute showed that 73% of Jewish voters felt less secure as Jews than before, 71% disapproved of Trump's handling of anti-Semitism (54% strongly disapprove), 59% felt that he bears "at least some responsibility" for the shootings in Pittsburgh and Poway, and 38% were concerned that Trump was encouraging right-wing extremism. Views of the Democratic and Republican parties were milder: 28% were concerned that Republicans were making alliances with white nationalists and tolerating anti-Semitism within their ranks, while 27% were concerned that Democrats were tolerating antisemitizm within their ranks.^[162]

Tashqi siyosat

American Jews have displayed a very strong interest in tashqi ishlar, especially regarding Germaniya in the 1930s, and Isroil 1945 yildan beri.^[163] Both major parties have made strong commitments in support of Israel. Dr. Eric Uslaner of the Merilend universiteti argues, with regard to the 2004 election: "Only 15% of Jews said that Israel was a key voting issue. Among those voters, 55% voted for Kerry (compared to 83% of Jewish voters not concerned with Israel)." Uslander goes on to point out that negative views of Evangelist nasroniylar had a distinctly negative impact for Republicans among Jewish voters, while Pravoslav yahudiylar, traditionally more conservative in outlook as to social issues, favored the Republican Party.^[164] A Nyu-York Tayms article suggests that the Jewish movement to the Republican party is focused heavily on faith-based issues, similar to the Catholic vote, which is credited for helping Prezident Bush taking Florida in 2004.^[165] However, Natan Guttman, Oldinga's Washington bureau chief, dismisses this notion, writing in Lahza that while "[i]t is true that Republicans are making small and steady strides into the Jewish community ... a look at the past three decades of saylov uchastkalari, which are more reliable than pre-election polls, and the numbers are clear: Jews vote overwhelmingly Democratic,"^[166] an assertion confirmed by the most recent presidential election results.

Though some critics charged that Jewish interests were partially responsible for the push to Iroq bilan urush, Jewish Americans were actually more strongly opposed to the Iroq urushi from its onset than any other religious group, or even most Americans. The greater opposition to the war was not simply a result of high Democratic identification among U.S. Jews, as Jews of all political persuasions were more likely to oppose the war than non-Jews who shared the same political leanings.^[167][168]

Domestic issues

A 2013 Pew Research Center survey suggests that American Jews' views on domestic politics are intertwined with the community's self-definition as a persecuted minority who benefited from the liberties and societal shifts in the United States and feel obligated to help other minorities enjoy the same benefits. American Jews across age and gender lines tend to vote for and support politicians and policies supported by the Demokratik partiya. On the other hand, Orthodox American Jews have domestic political views that are more similar to their religious Christian neighbors.^[169]

American Jews are largely supportive of LGBT huquqlari with 79% responding in a 2011 Pew poll that homosexuality should be "accepted by society", while the overall average in the same 2011 poll among Americans of all demographic groups was that 50%.^[170] A split on homosexuality exists by level of observance. Islohot rabbis in America perform same-sex marriages as a matter of routine, and there are fifteen LGBT Jewish congregations in North America.^[171] Islohot, Qayta qurish and, increasingly, Konservativ, Jews are far more supportive on issues like gay marriage than Pravoslav yahudiylar bor.^[172] A 2007 survey of Conservative Jewish leaders and activists showed that an overwhelming majority supported gay rabbinical ordination and same-sex marriage.^[173] Accordingly, 78% of Jewish voters rejected Prop 8, the bill that banned gay marriage in California. No other ethnic or religious group voted as strongly against it.^[174]

In considering the trade-off between the economy and environmental protection, American Jews were significantly more likely than other religious groups (excepting Buddhism) to favor stronger environmental protection.^[175]

Jews in America also overwhelmingly oppose current United States marijuana policy. Eighty-six percent of Jewish Americans opposed arresting nonviolent marijuana smokers, compared to 61% for the population at large and 68% of all Democrats. Additionally, 85% of Jews in the United States opposed using federal law enforcement to close patient cooperatives for medical marijuana in states where medical marijuana is legal, compared to 67% of the population at large and 73% of Democrats.^[176]

A 2014 Pew Research survey titled "How Americans Feel About Religious Groups", found that Jews were viewed the most favorably of all other groups, with a rating of 63 out of 100.^[177] Jews were viewed most positively by fellow Jews, followed by white Evangelicals. Sixty percent of the 3,200 persons surveyed said they had ever met a Jew.^[178]

Jewish American culture

Since the time of the last major wave of Jewish immigration to America (over 2,000,000 Jews from Eastern Europe who arrived between 1890 and 1924), Jewish secular culture in the United States has become integrated in almost every important way with the broader American culture. Many aspects of Jewish American culture have, in turn, become part of the wider culture of the United States.

Til

Most American Jews today are native English speakers. A variety of other languages are still spoken within some American Jewish communities, communities that are representative of the various Yahudiylarning etnik bo'linishi from around the world that have come together to make up America's Jewish population.

Many of America's Hasidic Jews, being exclusively of Ashkenazi descent, are raised speaking Yahudiy. Yiddish was once spoken as the primary language by most of the several million Ashkenazi Jews who immigrated to the United States. It was, in fact, the original language in which Oldinga nashr etildi. Yiddish has had an influence on Amerika ingliz tili, and words borrowed from it include chutzpah ("effrontery", "gall"), nosh ("snack"), schlep ("drag"), schmuck ("an obnoxious, contemptible person", euphemism for "penis"), and, depending on idiolect, hundreds of other terms. (Shuningdek qarang Yinglish.)

The Fors yahudiy community in the United States, notably the large community in and around Los Angeles and Beverli-Xillz, Kaliforniya, primarily speak Fors tili (Shuningdek qarang Yahudo-forscha) in the home and synagogue. They also support their own Persian language newspapers. Persian Jews also reside in eastern parts of New York such as Kew bog'lari va Great Neck, Long Island.

Many recent Jewish immigrants from the Sovet Ittifoqi speak primarily Russian at home, and there are several notable communities where public life and business are carried out mainly in Russian, such as in Brayton plyaji Nyu-York shahrida va Sunny orollari plyaji Florida shtatida. 2010 estimates of the number of Jewish Russian-speaking households in the New York city area are around 92,000, and the number of individuals are somewhere between 223,000 and 350,000.^[183] Another high population of Russian Jews can be found in the Richmond tumani of San Francisco where Russian markets stand alongside the numerous Asian businesses.

A typical poster-hung wall in Jewish Bruklin, Nyu York

Amerika Buxoro yahudiylari gapirish Buxori, a dialect of Tajik Persian. They publish their own newspapers such as the Bukharian Times and a large portion live in Malika, Nyu York. O'rmon tepaliklari in the New York City borough of Queens is home to 108th Street, which is called by some "Bukharian Broadway",^[184] a reference to the many stores and restaurants found on and around the street that have Bukharian influences. Many Bukharians are also represented in parts of Arizona, Miami, Florida, and areas of Kaliforniya janubiy such as San Diego.

Klassik ibroniycha is the language of most Jewish religious literature, such as the Tanax (Bible) and Siddur (prayerbook). Zamonaviy ibroniycha is also the primary official language of the modern State of Isroil, which further encourages many to learn it as a second language. Some recent Israeli immigrants to America speak Hebrew as their primary language.

There are a diversity of Hispanic Jews living in America. The oldest community is that of the Sephardi Jews of New Netherland. Their ancestors had fled Spain or Portugal during the Inquisition for the Netherlands, and then came to New Netherland. Though there is dispute over whether they should be considered Hispanic. Some Hispanic Jews, particularly in Miami and Los Angeles, immigrated from Latin America. The largest groups are those that fled Cuba after the communist revolution (known as Jewbans), Argentine Jews, and more recently, Venezuelan Jews. Argentina is the Latin American country with the largest Jewish population. There are a large number of synagogues in the Miami area that give services in Spanish. The last Hispanic Jewish community would be those that recently came from Portugal or Spain, after Spain and Portugal granted citizenship to the descendants of Jews who fled during the Inquisition. All the above listed Hispanic Jewish groups speak either Spanish or Ladino.

Yahudiy Amerika adabiyoti

Although American Jews have contributed greatly to American arts overall, there remains a distinctly Jewish American literature. Jewish American literature often explores the experience of being a Jew in America, and the conflicting pulls of secular society and history.

Ommaviy madaniyat

Yiddish theater was very well attended, and provided a training ground for performers and producers who moved to Hollywood in the 1920s. Many of the early Hollywood moguls and pioneers were Jewish.^[185][186] They played roles in the development of radio and television networks, typified by Uilyam S. Peyli who ran CBS.^[187] Stephen J. Whitfield states that "The Sarnoff family was long dominant at NBC."^[188]

Many individual Jews have made significant contributions to American popular culture.^[189] There have been many Jewish American actors and performers, ranging from early 1900s actors, to classic Hollywood film stars, and culminating in many currently known actors. The field of American comedy includes many Jews. The legacy also includes songwriters and authors, for example the author of the song "Viva Las Vegas" Doc Pomus, yoki Billi Kid bastakor Aaron Kopland. Many Jews have been at the forefront of women's issues.

There were 110 Jewish players in Beysbolning oliy ligasi between 1870 and 1881.^[190] The first generation of Jewish Americans who immigrated during the 1880–1924 peak period were not interested in baseball, and in some cases tried to prevent their children from watching or participating in baseball-related activities. Most were focused on making sure they and their children took advantage of education and employment opportunities. Despite the efforts of parents, Jewish children became interested in baseball quickly since it was already embedded in the broader American culture. The second generation of immigrants saw baseball as a means to celebrate American culture without abandoning their broader religious community. After 1924, many Yiddish newspapers began covering baseball, which they had not done previously.^[190]

Government and military

Qabr Konfederatsiya Jewish soldier near Klinton, Luiziana

Since 1845, a total of 34 Jews have served in the Senate, including the 14 present-day senators noted yuqorida. Yahudo P. Benjamin was the first practicing Jewish Senator, and would later serve as Konfederatsiya Urush kotibi and Secretary of State during the Fuqarolar urushi. Rahm Emanuel served as Chief of Staff to President Barack Obama. The number of Jews elected to the House rose to an all-time high of 30. Sakkiz Jews have been appointed to the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Oliy sudi, of which two (Stiven Breyer va Elena Kagan) are currently serving. Bor edi Merrick Garland's 2016 nomination been accepted, that number would have risen to four out of nine since Rut Bader Ginsburg was also serving at that time.

The Civil War marked a transition for American Jews. It killed off the antisemitic canard, widespread in Europe, to the effect that Jews are cowardly, preferring to run from war rather than serve alongside their fellow citizens in battle.^[191][192]

At least twenty eight American Jews have been awarded the "Shuhrat" medali.

Ikkinchi jahon urushi

More than 550,000 Jews served in the AQSh harbiylari davomida Ikkinchi jahon urushi; about 11,000 were killed and more than 40,000 were wounded. There were three recipients of the Medal of Honor; 157 recipients of the Armiyada xizmat ko'rsatganligi uchun medal, Dengiz kuchlari uchun xizmat uchun medal, Hurmatli xizmat xochi, yoki Navy Cross; and about 1600 recipients of the Kumush yulduz. About 50,000 other decorations and awards were given to Jewish military personnel, for a total of 52,000 decorations. During this period, Jews were approximately 3.3 percent of the total U.S. population but constituted about 4.23 percent of the U.S. armed forces. About 60 percent of all Jewish physicians in the United States under 45 years of age were in service as military physicians and tibbiyot xodimlari.^[193]

Ko'pchilik^{[iqtibos kerak]} Yahudiy fiziklar, including project lead J. Robert Oppengeymer, were involved in the Manxetten loyihasi, the secret World War II effort to develop the atom bombasi. Many of these were refugees from Natsistlar Germaniyasi yoki dan antisemitik persecution elsewhere in Europe.

Amerika xalq musiqasi

Jews have been involved in the American folk music scene since the late 19th century;^[194] these tended to be refugees from Central and Eastern Europe, and significantly more economically disadvantaged than their established Western European Sephardic coreligionists.^[195] Historians see it as a legacy of the secular Yiddish theater, cantorial traditions and a desire to assimilate. By the 1940s Jews had become established in the American folk music scene.

Examples of the major impact Jews have had in the American folk music arena include, but are not limited to: Moe Asch the first to record and release much of the music of Vudi Gutrishu jumladan "Bu er sizning eringiz"(qarang The Asch Recordings) in response to Irving Berlin's "God Bless America", and Guthrie wrote Jewish songs. Guthrie married a Yahudiy and their son Arlo became influential in his own right. Asch's one-man corporation Folkways Records also released much of the music of Leadbelly and Pete Seeger from the '40s and '50s. Asch's large music catalog was voluntarily donated to the Smithsonian.

Three of the four creators of the Newport Folk Festival, Wein, Bikel and Grossman (Seeger is not) were Jewish. Albert Grossman put together Butrus, Pol va Maryam, of which Yarrow is Jewish. Oskar brendi, from a Canadian Jewish family, has the longest running radio program "Oscar Brand's Folksong Festival" which has been on air consecutively since 1945 from New York City.^[196] And is the first American broadcast where the host himself will answer any personal correspondence.

The influential group To'quvchilar, successor to the Almanac Singers, led by Pete Seeger, had a Jewish manager, and two of the four members of the group were Jewish (Gilbert and Hellerman). The B-side of "Good Night Irene" had the Hebrew folk song personally chosen for the record by Pete Seeger "Tzena, Tzena, Tzena".

The influential folk music magazine Sing Out! was co-founded and edited by Irvin Silber in 1951, and edited by him until 1967, when the magazine stopped publication for decades. Rolling Stone magazine's first music critic Jon Landau is of German Jewish descent. Izzy Young who created the legendary^[197] Folklore Center in New York, and currently the Folklore Centrum near Mariatorget in Södermalm, Sweden, which relates to American and Swedish folk music.^[198]

Dave Van Ronk observed that the behind the scenes 1950s folk scene "was at the very least 50 percent Jewish, and they adopted the music as part of their assimilation into the Anglo-American tradition which itself was largely an artificial construct but none the less provided us with some common ground".^[199]Nobel Prize winner Bob Dilan is also Jewish.

Finance and law

Jews have been involved in financial services since the colonial era. They received rights to trade fur, from the Dutch and Swedish colonies. British governors honored these rights after taking over. During the Revolutionary War, Haym Solomon helped create America's first semi-central bank, and advised Alexander Hamilton on the building of America's financial system.^{[iqtibos kerak]}

American Jews in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries played a major role in developing America's financial services industry, both at investment banks and with investment funds.^[200] German Jewish bankers began to assume a major role in American finance in the 1830s when government and private borrowing to pay for canals, railroads and other ichki yaxshilanishlar increased rapidly and significantly. Men such as Avgust Belmont (Rothschild's agent in New York and a leading Democrat), Philip Speyer, Jacob Schiff (at Kuhn, Loeb & Company), Joseph Seligman, Philip Lehman (ning Lehman birodarlar), Jules Bacheva Marcus Goldman (ning Goldman Sachs) illustrate this financial elite.^[201] As was true of their non-Jewish counterparts, family, personal, and business connections, a reputation for honesty and integrity, ability, and a willingness to take calculated risks were essential to recruit capital from widely scattered sources. The families and the firms which they controlled were bound together by religious and social factors, and by the prevalence of intermarriage. These personal ties fulfilled real business functions before the advent of institutional organization in the 20th century.^[202][203] Antisemitic elements often falsely targeted them as key players in a supposed Jewish cabal conspiring to dominate the world.^[204]

Since the late 20th century, Jews have played a major role in the hedge fund industry, according to Zuckerman (2009).^[205] Shunday qilib SAC Capital maslahatchilari,^[206] Soros fondini boshqarish,^[207] Och-Ziff Capital Management,^[208] GLG Partners^[209] Uyg'onish texnologiyalari^[210] va Elliott Management Corporation^[211][212] are large hedge funds cofounded by Jews. They have also played a pivotal role in the private equity industry, co-founding some of the largest firms in the United States, such as Qora tosh,^[213] Cerberus Capital Management,^[214] TPG Capital,^[215] BlackRock,^[216] Carlyle Group,^[217] Warburg Pincus,^[218] va KKR.^{[219][220][221]}

Very few Jewish lawyers were hired by Oq ingliz-saksoniy protestant ("WASP") yuqori darajali oq poyabzal bo'yicha yuridik firmalar, lekin ular o'zlarini boshladilar. WASP qonunchilikdagi ustunligi bir qator yirik yahudiy yuridik firmalarining eng yuqori martabali korporatsiyalar bilan muomala qilishda elita maqomiga erishishi bilan tugadi. 1950 yillarning oxirlarida Nyu-York shahrida bitta yirik yahudiy yuridik firmasi yo'q edi. Biroq, 1965 yilga kelib 20 ta yirik firmaning oltitasi yahudiy edi; 1980 yilga kelib o'nta eng katta to'rttasi yahudiy edi.^[222]

Federal zaxira

Pol Warburg, tashkil etishning etakchi tarafdorlaridan biri markaziy bank Qo'shma Shtatlarda va yangi tashkil etilgan birinchi hokimlardan biri Federal zaxira tizimi, Germaniyadagi taniqli yahudiy oilasidan chiqqan.^[223] O'shandan beri bir necha yahudiylar xizmat qilishdi raislar Fed, shu jumladan Evgeniya Meyer, Artur F. Berns, Alan Greinspan, Ben Bernanke va Janet Yellen.

Ilm-fan, biznes va ilmiy doiralar

Yahudiylarning ishi oq kasbga jalb qilinib, intellektual ishlarda ustun bo'lganligi sababli, ko'plab yahudiylar Qo'shma Shtatlarda tadbirkor va professional ozchilik sifatida juda muvaffaqiyatli bo'lishdi.^[124] Ko'plab yahudiylar oilaviy korxonalar avloddan avlodga o'tib kelayotganlar aktiv, daromad manbai va oilaning umumiy ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy farovonligi uchun kuchli moliyaviy zamin.^{[224][225][226][227]} Yahudiy amerikalik madaniy sohada yahudiy amerikaliklar ham kuchli tadbirkorlik madaniyatini rivojlantirdilar, chunki yahudiy madaniyatida tadbirkorlik va tijorat bilan shug'ullanish juda yaxshi baholanadi.^[228] Amerikalik yahudiylar, shuningdek, fizika, sotsiologiya, iqtisod, psixologiya, matematika, falsafa va tilshunoslik kabi akademiyalar tarkibidagi turli fanlarga jalb qilingan (qarang Yahudiylarning dunyoviy madaniyati va ba'zi bir akademik sohalarda nomutanosib rol o'ynagan). Kabi yahudiy amerikalik ziyolilar Shoul Bellou, Ayn Rand, Noam Xomskiy, Tomas Fridmanva Elie Vizel Amerika umumiy hayotida katta ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining eng nufuzli 200 ziyolilarining 50% to'liq yahudiylar, 76% yahudiy amerikaliklar kamida bitta yahudiy ota-onasiga ega.^{[229][230][231]} Amerikalik Nobel mukofoti sovrindorlarining 37 foizi yahudiy amerikaliklar (aholining yahudiylar ulushidan 18 baravar ko'p), 61 foiz bo'lgan Jon Bates Klark medali iqtisodiyot oluvchilarida (yahudiy foizidan o'ttiz besh baravar ko'p).^[232]

Ishbilarmonlik dunyosida 1995 yilda yahudiy amerikaliklar AQSh aholisining 2,5 foizidan kamrog'ini tashkil qilgan bo'lsa-da, ular AQShning turli joylarida 7,7 foiz kengashlarni egallaganliklari aniqlandi. korporatsiyalar.^[233] Amerikalik yahudiylar ham bunga qodir NBA mulkchilik. NBA-dagi 30 ta jamoadan 14 ta yahudiy asosiy egalari bor. Bir nechta yahudiylar NBA komissari sifatida, shu jumladan NBA komissari sifatida ishlagan Devid Stern va amaldagi komissar Adam Silver.^[228]

Ilm-fan, ishbilarmonlik va ilmiy doiralardagi ko'plab martabalar odatda yaxshi maoshga ega bo'lganligi sababli, yahudiy amerikaliklar ham o'rtacha amerikaliklarga qaraganda o'rtacha daromadga ega bo'lishadi. 2000-2001 yillarda yahudiylar milliy aholisi o'rtasida o'tkazilgan so'rov natijalariga ko'ra yahudiy oilasining o'rtacha daromadi yiliga 54000 dollarni tashkil etadi (o'rtacha oilaga qaraganda 5000 dollar ko'proq) va yahudiy oilalarining 34 foizi yiliga 75000 dollardan oshiqroq daromad keltirmoqda.^[234]

Taniqli odamlar

Shuningdek qarang

• Amerika yahudiylari oshxonasi
• Isroil amerikaliklari
• Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlarining yahudiy urushi faxriylari
• Qo'shma Shtatlardagi yahudiylarning siyosiy bosqichlari ro'yxati
• Amerika yahudiylari harbiy tarixining milliy muzeyi

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

• Amerika yahudiy qo'mitasi. Amerika yahudiylari yilnomasi: Yahudiylar tsivilizatsiyasining yillik yozuvi (yillik, 1899–2012 +),to'liq matnli onlayn 1899–2007; AQSh va butun dunyodagi yahudiylarning holati to'g'risida uzoq muddatli esselar; tarixchilar tomonidan ishlatiladigan standart birlamchi manba
• Norvud, Stiven H. va Yunis G. Pollak, nashrlar. Amerika yahudiylari tarixi ensiklopediyasi (2007 yil 2 jild), 775 pp; mutaxassislar tomonidan tushunarli yoritilishi; ko'chirma va matn qidirish 1-jild
• Etengoff, C., (2011). Yahudiy-amerikalik yangi paydo bo'layotgan turli xil ijtimoiy-diniy kichik guruhlarning diniy jinsi farqlarini o'rganish, Din psixologiyasi arxivi, 33, 371-391.
• Amerikadagi yahudiy xalqi 5 jild 1992 yil
  • Faber, Eli. Ekish vaqti: birinchi ko'chish, 1654-1820 (1-jild) (1992) parcha va matn qidirish
  • Diner, Hasia R. Yig'ilish vaqti: Ikkinchi ko'chish, 1820-1880 (2-jild) (1992) parcha va matn qidirish
  • Sorin, Jerald. Qurilish vaqti: Uchinchi ko'chish, 1880-1920 (1992) parcha va matn qidirish
  • Feingold, Genri L. Qidirish vaqti: Asosiy oqimga kirish, 1920-1945 yillar (4-jild) (1992) parcha va matn qidirish
  • Shapiro, Edvard S. Davolash vaqti: Ikkinchi jahon urushidan beri Amerika yahudiyligi, (5-jild) (1992) parcha va matn qidirish
• Antler, Joys., Ed. Orqaga gaplashamiz: Amerika ommaviy madaniyatidagi yahudiy ayollarining obrazlari. 1998.
• Koen, Naomi. Xristian Amerikadagi yahudiylar: diniy tenglikka intilish. 1992.
• Cutler, Irving. Chikago yahudiylari: Shtetldan shahar atrofiga. 1995
• Kechki ovqat, Xasiya va boshq. Uning asarlari uni maqtaydi: Amerikadagi yahudiy ayollarining mustamlakachilik davridan to hozirgi kungacha bo'lgan tarixi (2002)
• Kechki ovqat, Xasiya. AQSh yahudiylari, 1654 yildan 2000 yilgacha (2004) onlayn
• Dinnershteyn, Leonard. Amerikadagi antisemitizm. 1994.
• Dollinger, Mark. Kiritish uchun izlanish: Zamonaviy Amerikadagi yahudiylar va liberalizm. 2000.
• Eyzen, Arnold M. Amerikadagi tanlangan odamlar: yahudiylarning diniy mafkurasi bo'yicha tadqiqot. 1983.
• Feingold, Genri L. Amerika yahudiylarining siyosiy madaniyati va liberal ishontirish (Syracuse University Press; 2014) 384 bet; Amerika yahudiylarining siyosiy madaniyatida liberalizm tarixi, hukmronligi va motivlarini kuzatib boradi va Isroil va Xolokost haqidagi xavotirlarni ko'rib chiqadi.
• Gleyzer, Natan. Amerika yahudiyligi. 2-nashr, 1989 yil.
• Goren, Artur. Amerika yahudiylarining siyosati va ommaviy madaniyati. 1999.
• Xau, Irving. Otalar dunyosi: Sharqiy Evropa yahudiylarining Amerikaga sayohati va ular topgan va qilgan hayoti (1976)
• Gurok, Jeffri S. Suyuqlikdan qat'iylikgacha: Amerikada yigirmanchi asrdagi konservativ va pravoslav yahudiylarning diniy dunyosi. Jan va Samuel Frankel Yahudiyshunoslik Markazi, 1998 yil.
• Hyman, Paula va Debora Dash Mur, eds. Amerikadagi yahudiy ayollari: tarixiy entsiklopediya. 1997
• Kobrin, Rebekka, ed. Tanlangan kapital: yahudiylarning Amerika kapitalizmi bilan uchrashuvi (Rutgers University Press; 2012) 311 bet; spirtli ichimliklar, ko'chmas mulk va metallolom sanoati va yahudiylar uyushma tashkilotchilari sifatida ilmiy maqolalar.
• Lederxendler, Eli. New York Jews and the Decline of Urban Ethnicity, 1950–1970. 2001
• Lederhendler, Eli. American Jewry: A New History (Cambridge UP, 2017). 331 pp.
• Marcus, Jacob Rader. United States Jewry 1776–1985. Vol. 1: The Sephardic Period; United States Jewry 1776–1985. Vol. 2: The Germanic Period.; United States Jewry 1776–1985. Vol. 3: The Germanic Period, Part 2.; United States Jewry 1776–1985. Vol. 4: The East European Period: The Emergence of the American Jew; Epilogue. (Wayne State University Press, 1989–1993) 3119pp.
• Moore, Deborah Dash. To the Golden Cities: Pursuing the American Jewish Dream in Miami and L. A. 1994
• Moore, Deborah Dash. GI Jews: How World War II Changed a Generation (2006)
• Novick, Peter. The Holocaust in American Life. 1999.
• Raphael, Marc Lee. Judaism in America. Columbia U. Press, 2003. 234 pp.
• Sarna, Jonathan D. American Judaism Yale University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-300-10197-3. 512 pp. [1]
• Sorin, Gerald. Tradition Transformed: The Jewish Experience in America. 1997.
• Svonkin, Stuart. Jews against Prejudice: American Jews and the Fight for Civil Liberties. 1997
• Waxman, Chaim I. "What We Don't Know about the Judaism of America's Jews." Contemporary Jewry (2002) 23: 72–95. ISSN 0147-1694 Uses survey data to map the religious beliefs of American Jews, 1973–2002.
• Wertheimer, Jack, tahrir. The American Synagogue: A Sanctuary Transformed. 1987.

Tarixnoma

• Appel, John J. "Hansen's Third-Generation" Law" and the Origins of the American Jewish Historical Society." Yahudiylarning ijtimoiy tadqiqotlari (1961): 3–20. JSTOR-da
• Butler, Jon. "Jacob Rader Marcus and the Revival of Early American History, 1930–1960." Amerika yahudiylari arxivlari 50#1/2 (1998): 28–39. onlayn
• Fried, Lewis, et al., eds. Handbook of American-Jewish literature: an analytical guide to topics, themes, and sources (Greenwood Press, 1988)
• Gurock, Jeffrey S (2013). "Writing New York's Twentieth Century Jewish History: A Five Borough Journey". Tarix kompas. 11 (3): 215–226. doi:10.1111/hic3.12033.
• Gurock, Jeffrey S. American Jewish orthodoxy in historical perspective (KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 1996)
• Handlin, Oscar. "A Twenty Year Retrospect of American Jewish Historiography." Amerika yahudiylarining tarixiy chorakligi (1976): 295–309. JSTOR-da
• Kaufman, Dovud. Shul with a Pool: The" synagogue-center" in American Jewish History (University Press of New England, 1999.)
• Robinson, Ira. "The Invention of American Jewish History." Amerika yahudiylari tarixi (1994): 309–320. JSTOR-da
• Sussman, Lance J. "'Historian of the Jewish People': A Historiographical Reevaluation of the Writings of Jacob R. Marcus." Amerika yahudiylari arxivlari 50.1/2 (1998): 10–21. onlayn
• Uitfild, Stiven J. In Search of American Jewish Culture. 1999
• Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim. Zakhor: Jewish History and Jewish Memory (University of Washington Press, 2012)

Birlamchi manbalar

• Marcus, Jacob Rader, ed. The American Jewish Woman, A Documentary History (Ktav 1981).
• Schappes, Morris Urman, ed. A documentary history of the Jews in the United States, 1654–1875 (Citadel Press, 1952).
• Staub, Michael E. ed. The Jewish 1960s: An American Sourcebook University Press of New England, 2004; 371 pp. ISBN 1-58465-417-1 onlayn ko'rib chiqish

Tashqi havolalar

Vikimedia Commons-ga tegishli ommaviy axborot vositalari mavjud Jewish people of the United States.

• Amerika yahudiylari tarixiy jamiyati
• Amerika yahudiylari arxivlari
• Amerika yahudiylari Kongressi
• American Jewish World Service
• Jewish Federations of North America
• My Jewish Learning: American Jewish Life
• Jewish population growth in the United States – The Literary Digest (1922)