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Ushbu maqola diqqatning psixologik kontseptsiyasi haqida. Boshqa maqsadlar uchun qarang Diqqat (ajratish).
Kognitiv psixologiya
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Idrok
Diqqat
Xotira
Metacognition
Til
Metall tili
Fikrlash

Idrok

Raqamli bilish
Fokuslangan e'tibor

Diqqat xulq-atvori va bilish jarayoni hisobga olingan holda, ma'lumotlarning alohida tomoniga tanlab diqqatni jamlash sub'ektiv yoki ob'ektiv, boshqa taxmin qilinadigan ma'lumotlarga e'tibor bermaslik bilan birga. Bu davlat qo'zg'alish. Uilyam Jeyms (1890) "[Diqqat] - bu aql bilan aniq va ravshan shaklda, bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta mumkin bo'lgan narsalardan birini egallash yoki fikr poezdlari. Fokalizatsiya, konsentratsiya, ning ong uning mohiyatiga kiradi. "[1] Diqqat, shuningdek, deb ta'riflangan ajratish cheklangan kognitiv ishlov berish resurslari.[2] Diqqat diqqat bilan namoyon bo'ladi torlik, ma'lumotlar miqdori muddatida miya har bir soniyani qayta ishlashi mumkin; masalan, ichida insonning ko'rish qobiliyati, vizual kirish ma'lumotlarining atigi 1 foizdan kamrog'i (sekundiga bir megabayt atrofida) to'siqqa kira oladi,[3] [4] beparvo ko'rlikka olib keladi.[5]

Diqqat tergovning hal qiluvchi sohasi bo'lib qolmoqda ta'lim, psixologiya, nevrologiya, kognitiv nevrologiyava neyropsixologiya. Faol tekshiruv yo'nalishlari manbani aniqlashni o'z ichiga oladi sezgir belgilar va diqqatni keltirib chiqaradigan signallar, ushbu sezgir signal va signallarning ta'siri sozlash sezgirning xususiyatlari neyronlarva e'tibor va o'z ichiga olishi mumkin bo'lgan boshqa xulq-atvor va bilim jarayonlari o'rtasidagi munosabatlar ishlaydigan xotira va psixologik hushyorlik. Psixopatologiya bo'yicha ilgari olib borilgan tadqiqotlarni kengaytiradigan nisbatan yangi tadqiqot guruhi diagnostik alomatlarni o'rganmoqda shikast miya shikastlanishi va uning diqqatga ta'siri. E'tibor madaniyatlarda ham farq qiladi.[6]

Diqqat va ong o'rtasidagi munosabatlar etarlicha murakkab bo'lib, ular ko'p yillik falsafiy izlanishni kafolatlaydi. Bunday tadqiqotlar qadimiy va doimiy ravishda dolzarbdir, chunki u turli sohalarda ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin ruhiy salomatlik va o'rganish ongning buzilishi ga sun'iy intellekt va uning tadqiqot sohalari.

Zamonaviy ta'rif va tadqiqotlar

Tashkil etilganidan oldin psixologiya ilmiy intizom sifatida e'tibor sohada o'rganilgan falsafa. Shunday qilib, diqqat sohasidagi ko'plab kashfiyotlar faylasuflar tomonidan amalga oshirildi. Psixolog Jon B. Uotson qo'ng'iroqlar Xuan Luis Vives zamonaviy psixologiyaning otasi, chunki uning kitobida De Anima va Vita (Ruh va hayot), u birinchi bo'lib empirik tekshiruvning muhimligini anglagan.[7] Xotira bo'yicha o'z ishida Vives stimulga qanchalik yaqin bo'lsa, ular shunchalik yaxshi saqlanib qolishini aniqladi.

1990 yillarga kelib psixologlar foydalanishni boshladilar pozitron emissiya tomografiyasi (PET) va undan keyin funktsional magnit-rezonans tomografiya (fMRI) diqqatni jalb qiladigan vazifalarni kuzatish paytida miyani tasvirlash. Ushbu qimmatbaho uskunalar odatda faqat kasalxonalarda mavjudligini hisobga olib, psixologlar nevrologlar bilan hamkorlik qilishga intilishdi. Psixolog Maykl Pozner (keyin allaqachon vizual selektiv e'tibor bo'yicha ta'sirchan ishi bilan mashhur) va nevrolog Markus Rayl kashshof diqqatni sinash bo'yicha kashshof miya tasvirlash ishlari.[8] Tez orada ularning natijalari nevrologiya jamoatchiligida qiziqish uyg'otdi, ular shu vaqtgacha shunchaki maymun miyalariga yo'naltirilgan edi. Ushbu texnologik yangiliklarning rivojlanishi bilan, nevrologlar dan murakkab tajriba paradigmalarini birlashtirgan ushbu turdagi tadqiqotlarga qiziqish paydo bo'ldi kognitiv psixologiya ushbu yangi miya tasvirlash texnikasi bilan. Garchi eski texnikasi elektroensefalografiya (EEG) uzoq vaqt davomida selektiv e'tibor ostida bo'lgan miya faoliyatini o'rganish uchun ishlatilgan kognitiv psixofizyologlar, yangi texnikaning miyadagi aniq lokalizatsiya qilingan faollikni aniq o'lchash qobiliyati tadqiqotchilarning keng jamoatchiligi tomonidan yangi qiziqish uyg'otdi. Nörobilimsel dalillar frontoparietalni aniqladi miya tarmog'i bu ko'plab diqqat jarayonlari uchun javobgardir.[9]

Tanlangan va ingl

Shuningdek qarang: Tanlangan eshitish diqqat
Diqqatning diqqat modeli

Yilda kognitiv psixologiya vizual e'tibor qanday ishlashini tavsiflovchi kamida ikkita model mavjud. Ushbu modellar metafora deb qaralishi mumkin, ular ichki jarayonlarni tavsiflash va shunday farazlarni yaratish uchun ishlatiladi soxtalashtiriladigan. Umuman aytganda, vizual e'tibor ikki bosqichli jarayon sifatida ishlaydi deb o'ylashadi.[10] Birinchi bosqichda e'tibor tashqi vizual sahnada bir tekis taqsimlanadi va ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlash parallel ravishda amalga oshiriladi. Ikkinchi bosqichda diqqat vizual sahnaning ma'lum bir sohasiga jamlangan (ya'ni, u yo'naltirilgan) va qayta ishlash ketma-ketlikda amalga oshiriladi.

Ushbu modellardan birinchisi adabiyotda paydo bo'ldi - bu spotlight modeli. "Spotlight" atamasi tomonidan yaratilgan Uilyam Jeyms, diqqatni diqqat, chekka va chekka tomonga ega deb ta'riflagan.[11] Fokus - bu vizual sahnadan ma'lumotlarni yuqori aniqlikda chiqaradigan, geometrik markazi esa vizual e'tibor qaratiladigan joy. Fokusni o'rab turgan narsa, diqqatni chekkalashtiruvchi bo'lib, u ma'lumotni ancha qo'pol tarzda chiqaradi (ya'ni past aniqlik). Ushbu chekka belgilangan maydonga cho'ziladi va chekka chekka deb nomlanadi.

Ikkinchi model zoom-ob'ektiv modeli deb nomlanadi va birinchi marta 1986 yilda taqdim etilgan.[12] Ushbu model spotlight modelining barcha xususiyatlarini meros qilib oladi (ya'ni fokus, chekka va hoshiya), lekin u o'lchamining o'zgarishi xususiyatiga ega. Ushbu o'lchamlarni o'zgartirish mexanizmi ilhomlantirildi kattalashtirish linzalari kameradan topish mumkin, va o'lchamdagi har qanday o'zgarishlarni ishlov berish samaradorligi bo'yicha kelishuv bilan tavsiflash mumkin.[13] Diqqatni kattalashtirish ob'ektivini fokus hajmi va ishlov berish samaradorligi o'rtasidagi teskari kelishuv nuqtai nazaridan ta'riflash mumkin: chunki diqqat resurslari aniqlangan deb taxmin qilinadi, shunda fokus qanchalik katta bo'lsa, ishlov berish sekinroq bo'ladi vizual sahnaning ushbu mintaqasida bo'ladi, chunki bu belgilangan resurs katta maydonga taqsimlanadi. E'tibor markazida kamida 1 ° darajani ushlab turish mumkin deb o'ylashadi ko'rish burchagi,[11][14] ammo maksimal hajmi hali aniqlanmagan.

20-asrning so'nggi o'n yilligida Treismanning 1993 yilgi "Xususiyatlar integratsiyasi nazariyasi" (FIT) Dunkan va Xamfrining 1989 yildagi diqqatni jalb qilish nazariyasi (AET) bilan taqqoslangan muhim munozara yuzaga keldi.[15]:5–7 FIT "ob'ektlar sahnalardan ob'ektlarning xususiyatlarini tanlaydigan, xususiyatlar xaritalarini shakllantiradigan va bir xil joyda topilgan xususiyatlarni shakllanadigan narsalarga qo'shadigan tanlangan fazoviy e'tibor yordamida olinadi" degan fikrni bildiradi. Treismans nazariyasi diqqatning majburiy muammosini hal qilishga yordam beradigan ikki bosqichli jarayonga asoslangan. Ushbu ikki bosqich - bu ehtiyotkorlik bosqichi va diqqatni jalb qilish bosqichi.

  1. Oldindan davolash bosqichi: buyumning xususiyatlarini (rangi, shakli, o'lchami) ongsiz ravishda aniqlash va ajratish. Treisman, bu kognitiv ishlov berishning boshida sodir bo'lishini va bir butunni uning qismiga ajratishning qarshi intuitivligi tufayli shaxslar bu hodisadan xabardor emasligini ta'kidlamoqda. Dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, ilmoqli bog'lanishlar tufayli oldindan davolash fokuslari aniq.[16]
  2. Fokuslangan diqqat bosqichi: barcha qismlarni bir butun sifatida qabul qilish uchun barcha xususiyat identifikatorlarini birlashtirish. Bu oldindan bilim va kognitiv xaritalash orqali mumkin. Agar buyum ma'lum bo'lgan joyda ko'rinib tursa va odamlar biladigan xususiyatlarga ega bo'lsa, unda oldindan olingan bilimlar idrok etilayotgan narsalarni anglash uchun xususiyatlarni birlashtirishga yordam beradi. Balint sindromi deb ham ataladigan R.Mning parietal lobiga zarar etkazishi holati diqqat markazida bo'lgan e'tibor va xususiyatlarning kombinatsiyasini diqqat rolida aks ettiradi.[17]

Ushbu bosqichlarni ketma-ketligi orqali parallel va ketma-ket qidirish ob'ektlarning birikmalarini shakllantirish orqali yaxshiroq namoyon bo'ladi. Treismansning fikriga ko'ra, konjunktiv qidiruvlar har ikki bosqichda ham amalga oshiriladi[18] Ob'ektga tanlangan va diqqatli e'tiborni jalb qilish uchun, Dyankan va Xemfri rozi bo'lmasalar ham. Dankan va Xamfri AETning e'tiborni tushunishi "sahnada mavjud bo'lgan barcha ingl. Ob'ektlarni qamrab oladigan sezgi segmentatsiyasi va tahlilining dastlabki paralel parallel bosqichi mavjud. Ushbu bosqichda vizual sahnadagi narsalarning tavsiflari hosil bo'ladi. Ushbu parallel bosqichning natijasi ko'p fazoviy miqyosdagi tuzilgan namoyishdir. Tanlangan e'tibor ushbu bosqichdan so'ng vizual qisqa muddatli xotiraga kiritiladigan ma'lumotlarni tanlashga aralashadi. "[15]:5–7 Ikkala nazariyaning qarama-qarshiligi nafaqat vizual diqqat vazifalarini va qo'shimcha bilim jarayonlari vositachiligini ajratishga yangi ahamiyat berdi. Rastophopoulos munozarani xulosa qilar ekan: "Ob'ektlarni aniqlashning zaruriy sharti sifatida fazoviy e'tiborni keltirib chiqaradigan Treismanning FIT-ga qarshi, Hamfreylar vizual elementlar kodlangan va bir-biriga bog'langan holda boshlang'ich parallel bosqichda fokusli e'tiborni jalb qilmasdan xizmat qiladi, deb ta'kidlaydi. ushbu dastlabki guruhlash natijasida hosil bo'lgan ob'ektlar. "[15]:8

Nöropsikologik model

Yigirmanchi asrda Lev Vigotskiy va Aleksandr Luriyaning kashshof tadqiqotlari neyropsikologiyaning uch qismli modelini ish miyasini Diqqat, Xotira va Aktivatsiya deb nomlangan uchta birgalikdagi faol jarayonlar bilan ifodalaydi. Diqqat ishlaydigan miyaning uchta asosiy birgalikdagi faol jarayonlaridan biri sifatida aniqlanadi. A.R. Luriya o'zining taniqli kitobini nashr etdi Ishchi miya 1973 yilda uning avvalgi 1962 yilgi kitobiga qisqacha qo'shimcha sifatida Insonda yuqori kortikal funktsiyalar. Ushbu jildda Luriya o'zining ishchi miyaning uch qismli global nazariyasini umumlashtirgan uchta doimiy faol jarayondan iborat deb xulosa qildi; (1) Diqqat tizimi, (2) Mnestik (xotira) tizimi va (3) Kortikal faollashtirish tizimi. Ikkala kitobni birgalikda Xomskayaning yozishicha "Luriyaning ushbu yangi intizomning barcha jihatlarini (nazariy, klinik, eksperimental) to'liq aks ettirgan neyropsixologiyadagi asosiy asarlari qatorida".[19] Vygotskiy va Luriyaning birgalikdagi tadqiqotlari samarasi e'tiborni zamonaviy tushunish va aniqlashning katta qismini 21-asrning boshlarida tushunilganidek aniqladi.

Ko'p vazifali va bo'lingan

Shuningdek qarang: Inson ko'p vazifali va Avtoulovni chalg'itishi

Ko'p vazifani bir vaqtning o'zida ikki yoki undan ortiq vazifani bajarishga urinish deb ta'riflash mumkin; ammo, tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, ko'p vazifalarni bajarishda odamlar ko'proq xatolarga yo'l qo'yishadi yoki o'z vazifalarini sekinroq bajaradilar.[20] E'tiborni bajarish uchun barcha komponent vazifalari orasida bo'linishi kerak. Ayrim e'tiborda, shaxslar bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta ma'lumot manbalariga tashrif buyurishadi yoki e'tibor berishadi yoki bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta vazifalarni bajaradilar.[21]

Qadimgi tadqiqotlar odamlarning bir vaqtning o'zida hikoyalarni o'qish, boshqa narsalarni tinglash va yozish kabi vazifalarni bajarishiga qarab,[22] yoki turli xil quloqlar orqali ikkita alohida xabarni tinglash (ya'ni, dichotic tinglash). Odatda, diqqatni jalb qilish bo'yicha olib borilgan klassik tadqiqotlar odamlarning bir nechta vazifalarni bajarishda yangi ma'lumotlarni o'rganish yoki bizning idrokimiz chegaralarini tekshirish qobiliyatini o'rganib chiqdi (c.f. Donald Broadbent). Shuningdek, odamlarning bir vaqtning o'zida bajariladigan bir nechta vazifalarni bajarishi, masalan, radiostantsiyani sozlash paytida avtomashinani boshqarish bo'yicha eski adabiyotlar mavjud[23] yoki telefonda bo'lganingizda haydash.[24]

Insonning ko'p vazifali bajarilishi bo'yicha olib borilayotgan izlanishlarning aksariyati bir vaqtning o'zida ikkita vazifani bajarishga asoslangan,[20] odatda bu boshqa vazifani bajarayotganda haydashni o'z ichiga oladi, masalan, SMS yuborish, ovqat eyish yoki hattoki transport vositasidagi yo'lovchilar bilan yoki do'sti bilan uyali telefon orqali suhbatlashish. Ushbu tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, odamning diqqat tizimida uni qayta ishlash uchun cheklovlar mavjud: haydash ko'rsatkichlari boshqa vazifalar bilan shug'ullanishda yomonroq; haydovchilar ko'proq xatolarga yo'l qo'yishadi, tormozni qiyinlashtiradilar va keyinroq, ko'proq avariyalarga duch kelishadi, boshqa yo'lakchalarga chiqishadi va / yoki ilgari muhokama qilingan vazifalar bilan shug'ullanayotganda atroflarini kamroq bilishadi.[25][26][27]

Xushbichim uyali telefonda yoki qo'lda uyali telefonda gapirish o'rtasida juda oz farq bor edi,[5][28] bu haydovchining qo'llari bilan qilayotgani emas, balki diqqat tizimining zo'riqishi muammolarni keltirib chiqarmoqda. Yo'lovchi bilan suhbatlashish do'sti bilan telefon orqali gaplashish kabi bilimga ham talabchan,[29] yo'lovchilar haydovchining ehtiyojlari asosida suhbatni o'zgartirishi mumkin. Masalan, transport harakati kuchayib ketsa, yo'lovchining haydovchiga tobora qiyinlashib borayotgan yo'lda harakatlanishiga imkon berish uchun gaplashishni to'xtatishi mumkin; telefon orqali suhbatdoshi atrof-muhit o'zgarishini bilmaydi.

Ikki xil e'tiborga oid bir nechta nazariyalar mavjud. Biri, tomonidan o'ylab topilgan Kahneman,[30] bir nechta vazifalar orasida erkin taqsimlanadigan diqqat resurslarining yagona havzasi mavjudligini tushuntiradi. Ushbu model qabul qilingan turli xil usullar (masalan, vizual, eshitish, og'zaki) tufayli juda soddalashtirilgan ko'rinadi.[31] Bir vaqtning o'zida ikkita vazifa bir xil usuldan foydalanganda, masalan, radiostansiyani tinglash va qog'oz yozish, ikkalasida ham diqqatni jamlash ancha qiyin bo'ladi, chunki vazifalar bir-biriga xalaqit berishi mumkin. Maxsus modallik modeli 1979 yilda Navon va Gopher tomonidan nazariy jihatdan ishlab chiqilgan. Ammo yaqinda yaxshi boshqariladigan dual-task paradigmalaridan foydalangan holda olib borilgan tadqiqotlar vazifalarning muhimligiga ishora qilmoqda.[32]

Shu bilan bir qatorda, resurslar nazariyasi murakkab vazifalarga bo'lingan e'tiborni tushuntirish uchun aniqroq metafora sifatida taklif qilingan. Resurslar nazariyasida ta'kidlanishicha, har bir murakkab vazifa avtomatlashtirilganligi sababli, ushbu vazifani bajarish uchun shaxsning cheklangan imkoniyatlarga bo'lgan e'tibor resurslari kamroq talab qilinadi.[31] Boshqa o'zgaruvchilar bir vaqtning o'zida ko'pgina vazifalarga e'tibor berish va diqqatni jamlash qobiliyatimizda muhim rol o'ynaydi. Bularga tashvish, qo'zg'alish, vazifadagi qiyinchilik va ko'nikmalar kiradi, lekin ular bilan chegaralanmaydi.[31]

Bir vaqtda

Bir vaqtning o'zida diqqat - bu bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta tadbirlarga qatnashish orqali tasniflangan e'tibor turi. Bir vaqtning o'zida e'tiborni mahalliy jamoalardagi bolalar ko'rsatadilar, ular o'rganish ularning atrofiga ushbu turdagi e'tibor orqali.[33] Bir vaqtning o'zida e'tibor mahalliy millat bolalarining atrof-muhit bilan va boshqa shaxslar bilan o'zaro munosabatlarida mavjud. Bir vaqtning o'zida diqqat bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta tadbirlarga yoki hodisalarga e'tibor berishni talab qiladi. Bu ko'p vazifalarni bajarishdan farq qiladi, bu diqqat va e'tiborni bir nechta mashg'ulotlar orasida o'zgaruvchanligi yoki keyingisiga o'tishdan oldin bir harakatni to'xtatishi bilan tavsiflanadi.

Bir vaqtning o'zida e'tibor bir vaqtning o'zida sodir bo'ladigan bir nechta tadbirlarga uzluksiz e'tibor berishni o'z ichiga oladi. Bir vaqtning o'zida diqqatni jalb qilish strategiyasi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan boshqa madaniy amaliyot - bu guruh ichidagi muvofiqlashtirish. Mahalliy merosga ega bo'lgan bolalar va tarbiyachilar San-Pedro bir vaqtning o'zida e'tibor modeliga parallel ravishda o'z faoliyatini guruhning boshqa a'zolari bilan tez-tez muvofiqlashtirayotgani kuzatilgan, aksincha AQShdagi o'rta sinf evropalik oilalar voqealar orasida oldinga va orqaga harakat qilishgan.[6][34] Tadqiqot natijalariga ko'ra, tub amerikaliklar bilan yaqin aloqada bo'lgan bolalar, ayniqsa, keng kuzatuvchilar bo'lish istagi yuqori.[35] Bu diqqatni boshqarishdagi kuchli madaniy farqga ishora qiladi.

Muqobil mavzular va munozaralar

Ochiq va yashirin yo'nalish

Diqqat "ochiq" va "yashirin" yo'nalishga farqlanishi mumkin.[36]

Ochiq yo'nalish ko'zni shu tomonga ishora qilish orqali buyum yoki joyni boshqalar ustidan tanlab ishtirok etish harakati.[37] Ochiq yo'naltirish to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ko'z harakati shaklida kuzatilishi mumkin. Ko'zlarning ochiq harakatlari juda keng tarqalgan bo'lsa-da, ko'z harakatlarini ikki turiga ajratish mumkin; refleksli va boshqariladigan. Refleksiv harakatlarga buyruq beriladi ustun kolikulus ning o'rta miya. Ushbu harakatlar tezkor va stimullarning to'satdan paydo bo'lishi bilan faollashadi. Aksincha, boshqariladigan ko'z harakatlari zonalar tomonidan boshqariladi frontal lob. Ushbu harakatlar sekin va ixtiyoriydir.

Yashirin yo'nalish bu ko'zni harakatga keltirmasdan e'tiborni ruhiy jihatdan o'zgartirish harakati.[11][37][38] Oddiy qilib aytganda, bu aniq ko'z harakatlariga taalluqli bo'lmagan e'tibordagi o'zgarishlar. Yashirin yo'naltirish, ma'lum narsalarga yoki joylarga e'tiborni boshqarish orqali idrok etish jarayonlarining ta'siriga ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin (masalan, qabul qilish maydoni ishtirok etadigan stimulga asoslangan V4 neyronining faoliyati maxfiy e'tibor bilan kuchayadi)[39] ammo hislar tomonidan qayta ishlanadigan ma'lumotlarga ta'sir qilmaydi. Axborotni tanlashda yashirin e'tiborning rolini o'rganish uchun tadqiqotchilar ko'pincha "filtrlash" vazifalaridan foydalanadilar. Ushbu vazifalar ko'pincha ishtirokchilardan bir qator ogohlantirishlarni kuzatishni talab qiladi, ammo faqat bittasida qatnashadi.
Hozirgi ko'rinish shundan iboratki, vizual yashirin e'tibor ko'rish joyini qiziqarli joylarni tezda skanerlash mexanizmi. Yashirin e'tiborning bu o'zgarishi sekinroq o'rnatadigan ko'z harakati sxemasi bilan bog'liq sakkad o'sha joyga.[iqtibos kerak]

Ochiq va yashirin yo'naltirish mexanizmlarini ilgari ishonilganidek, alohida va mustaqil ravishda boshqarish mumkin emasligini ko'rsatadigan tadqiqotlar mavjud. Yashirin yo'nalishni boshqarishi mumkin bo'lgan markaziy mexanizmlar, masalan parietal lob, shuningdek, aniq yo'naltirish bilan shug'ullanadigan subkortikal markazlardan ma'lumot oladi.[37] Buni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun umumiy e'tibor nazariyalari pastdan yuqoriga (refleksiv) jarayonlarni faol ravishda qabul qiladi va yuqoridan pastga (ixtiyoriy) jarayonlar umumiy nerv me'morchiligiga yaqinlashadi, chunki ular yashirin va ochiq-oydin diqqat tizimlarini boshqaradi.[40] Masalan, agar shaxslar o'ng tomondagi ko'rish maydoniga tashrif buyurishsa, ko'zlarning bu yo'nalishdagi harakati faol ravishda bostirilishi kerak.

Ekzogen va endogen yo'naltirish

Diqqatni yo'naltirish hayotiy ahamiyatga ega va tashqi (ekzogen) yoki ichki (endogen) jarayonlar orqali boshqarilishi mumkin. Biroq, bu ikki jarayonni taqqoslash juda qiyin, chunki tashqi signallar to'liq ekzogen tarzda ishlamaydi, lekin ular mavzu uchun muhim bo'lsa, faqat diqqat va ko'z harakatlarini chaqiradi.[37]

Ekzogen (dan.) Yunoncha exo, "tashqarida" degan ma'noni anglatadi va genin, "ishlab chiqarish" degan ma'noni anglatadi) yo'naltirish tez-tez stimul nazorati ostida deb ta'riflanadi.[41] Ekzogen yo'naltirish refleksli va avtomatik hisoblanadi va atrofdagi to'satdan o'zgarishdan kelib chiqadi. Bu ko'pincha refleksli sakkadga olib keladi. Ekzogen belgilar odatda atrofda taqdim etilganligi sababli, ular deb nomlanadi periferik signallar. Ekzogen yo'nalishni, hatto odamlar nishon qaerda sodir bo'lishi to'g'risida ishonchli, aniq ma'lumot bermasligini bilganlarida ham kuzatilishi mumkin. Bu shuni anglatadiki, faqat ekzogen belgining mavjudligi, keyinchalik signalning avvalgi joyida keltirilgan boshqa ogohlantirishlarga ta'sirga ta'sir qiladi.[42]

Bir nechta tadqiqotlar haqiqiy va yaroqsiz ko'rsatmalarning ta'sirini o'rganib chiqdi.[37][43][44][45] Ularning fikriga ko'ra, amaldagi periferik signallar ishlashga foyda keltiradi, masalan, periferik signallar vizual stimul paydo bo'lishidan oldin tegishli joyda qisqa vaqt yonib turganda. Pozner va Koen (1984) ushbu imtiyozni bekor qilish signalning boshlanishi va nishonning boshlanishi o'rtasidagi interval taxminan 300 milodiydan ortiqroq bo'lganida sodir bo'lishini ta'kidladilar.[46] Yaroqsiz signallarga qaraganda ko'proq reaktsiya vaqtlarini ishlab chiqaradigan haqiqiy signallarning hodisasi deyiladi qaytishni inhibe qilish.

Endogen (dan.) Yunoncha endo, "ichkarida" yoki "ichki" ma'nosini anglatadi) yo'naltirish - bu oldindan aniqlangan joyga yoki makonga diqqat resurslarini ajratish. Oddiy qilib aytganda, endogen yo'nalish e'tiborni kuzatuvchining maqsadlari yoki xohishlariga qarab yo'naltirilganda sodir bo'ladi, bu esa diqqat markazida vazifa talablari bilan boshqarishga imkon beradi. Ta'sir qilish uchun endogen belgilar kuzatuvchi tomonidan qayta ishlanishi va maqsadga muvofiq ravishda bajarilishi kerak. Ushbu belgilar tez-tez deb nomlanadi markaziy signallar. Buning sababi shundaki, ular odatda displey markazida joylashgan bo'lib, u erda kuzatuvchining ko'zlari tikilgan bo'lishi mumkin. Belgilash paytida ko'rsatilgan o'q yoki raqam kabi markaziy ko'rsatmalar kuzatuvchilarga ma'lum joyga borishni buyuradi.[47]

Ekzogen va endogen yo'nalish o'rtasidagi farqlarni o'rganayotganda, ba'zi tadqiqotchilar ikki xil ko'rsatmalar o'rtasida to'rtta farq borligini ta'kidlaydilar:

  • ekzogen yo'nalish kamroq ta'sir qiladi kognitiv yuk endogen yo'naltirishga qaraganda;
  • kuzatuvchilar endogen signallarni e'tiborsiz qoldirishga qodir, ammo ekzogen belgilarga e'tibor bermaydilar;
  • ekzogen belgilar endogen belgilarga qaraganda katta ta'sirga ega; va
  • signalning amal qilish muddati va bashorat qilish qiymati haqidagi kutishlar ekzogen yo'nalishga qaraganda endogen yo'nalishga ta'sir qiladi.[48]

Miyaning endogen va ekzogen yo'nalishi uchun javob beradigan sohalarida bir-birining ustiga chiqadigan va farqlari mavjud.[49] Ushbu munozaraga yana bir yondashuv "pastdan yuqoriga" va "yuqoridan pastga" yo'nalishlariga bag'ishlangan sarlavha ostida ko'rib chiqildi. Ushbu maktab tadqiqotchilari ong atrof muhitda mavjud bo'lgan narsalarga e'tiborni qaratishning ikki xil tomonlarini tasvirlab berishdi. Birinchi jihat pastdan yuqoriga ishlov berish deb ataladi, shuningdek, stimulga asoslangan e'tibor yoki ekzogen diqqat. Bular ob'ektlarning o'ziga xos xususiyatlaridan kelib chiqadigan diqqat bilan ishlov berishni tasvirlaydi. Ba'zi jarayonlar, masalan, harakatlanish yoki to'satdan kuchli shovqin, bizning e'tiborimizni oldindan ongli ravishda yoki irodasiz tarzda jalb qilishi mumkin. Biz xohlasak ham, xohlamasak ham ularga tashrif buyuramiz.[50] E'tiborning ushbu jihatlari o'z ichiga oladi deb o'ylashadi parietal va vaqtinchalik kortekslar, shuningdek miya sopi.[51] Yaqinda o'tkazilgan eksperimental dalillar[52][53][54] degan fikrni qo'llab-quvvatlang birlamchi vizual korteks pastdan yuqoriga qarab xaritani yaratadi,[55][3] tomonidan qabul qilingan ustun kolikulus ichida o'rta miya diqqat yoki qarash o'zgarishini boshqarish uchun maydon.

Ikkinchi jihat yuqoridan pastga ishlov berish deb nomlanadi, shuningdek maqsadga yo'naltirilgan deb nomlanadi, endogen diqqat, diqqat nazorati yoki ijro etuvchi diqqat. Bizning diqqatimizni yo'naltirishning ushbu jihati tashrif buyurgan kishining nazorati ostida. Bunga asosan vositachilik qiladi frontal korteks va bazal ganglionlar[51][56] biri sifatida ijro funktsiyalari.[37][51] Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, u ijro funktsiyalarining boshqa jihatlari bilan bog'liq, masalan ishlaydigan xotira,[57] va nizolarni hal qilish va oldini olish.[58]

Qayta ishlash yukining ta'siri

"Juda ta'sirli"[59] tanlangan e'tiborga oid nazariya sezgir yuk nazariyasi, bu diqqatga ta'sir qiluvchi ikkita mexanizm mavjudligini ta'kidlaydi: bilim va idrok. Perseptual sub'ektning ogohlantiruvchi omillarni qabul qilish yoki e'tiborsiz qoldirish qobiliyatini, vazifalar bilan bog'liq va vazifalar bilan bog'liq emasligini hisobga oladi. Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, agar ko'plab ogohlantiruvchi vositalar mavjud bo'lsa (ayniqsa, ular vazifalar bilan bog'liq bo'lsa), vazifaga bog'liq bo'lmagan stimullarni e'tiborsiz qoldirish ancha osonroq, ammo ozgina stimullar mavjud bo'lsa, ong ahamiyatsiz stimullarni ham tegishli . Kognitiv stimullarning haqiqiy ishlashini anglatadi. Bu borada olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, yoshga qarab stimullarni qayta ishlash qobiliyati pasayib ketdi, ya'ni yoshroq odamlar ko'proq ogohlantirishlarni qabul qilishlari va ularni to'liq qayta ishlashlari mumkin edi, lekin ehtimol tegishli va ahamiyatsiz ma'lumotlarni qayta ishlashlari mumkin edi, ammo keksa odamlar kamroq ogohlantirishlarni qayta ishlashlari mumkin edi, lekin odatda faqat tegishli ma'lumotlarni qayta ishladi.[60]

Ba'zi odamlar bir nechta ogohlantirishlarni qayta ishlashlari mumkin, masalan. o'qitilgan Morse kod operatorlari mazmunli suhbatni olib borishda xabarni 100% nusxalashga muvaffaq bo'lishdi. Bu mors kodini qabul qilish / aniqlash / transkripsiya qilish mahoratini "haddan tashqari o'rganish" tufayli refleksli javobga asoslanadi, shunda u o'ziga xos e'tiborni talab qilmaydigan avtonom funktsiya hisoblanadi. Miyaning bunday haddan tashqari mashg'ulotlari "mahorat amaliyoti [100% aniqlikdan oshib ketishi") bilan bog'liq bo'lib, bu faoliyat avtonom bo'lishiga imkon beradi, sizning ongingiz boshqa harakatlarni bir vaqtning o'zida qayta ishlashga imkon beradi.[61]

Klinik modeli

Diqqat, tashqi ma'lumotni filtrlash yoki e'tiborsiz qoldirish paytida, bilim resurslarining doimiy diqqat markazida bo'lishi sifatida tavsiflanadi. Diqqat - bu boshqa barcha nevrologik / kognitiv funktsiyalarning kashfiyotchisi bo'lgan juda oddiy funktsiya. Tez-tez uchraydigan holatlarda e'tiborning klinik modellari tekshiruv modellaridan farq qiladi. Turli xil bemorlarda diqqatni baholash uchun eng ko'p ishlatiladigan modellardan biri nevrologik patologiyalar Sohlberg va Mateer modelidir.[62] Ushbu ierarxik model diqqat jarayonlarini tiklashga asoslangan miya shikastlanishi keyin bemorlar koma. Modelda qiyinlashib borayotgan besh xil faoliyat turlari tasvirlangan; sog'ayish jarayoni rivojlanib borishi bilan bemorlarning qila oladigan faoliyati bilan bog'lanish.

  • Fokuslangan e'tibor: Muayyan vizualga diskret javob berish qobiliyati, eshitish yoki teginish stimullari.
  • Doimiy e'tibor (hushyorlik va diqqat): Doimiy va takroriy faoliyat davomida xulq-atvorning izchil ta'sirini saqlab turish qobiliyati.
  • Tanlangan e'tibor: Chalg'itadigan yoki raqobatlashadigan stimullar oldida o'zini tutish yoki kognitiv to'plamni saqlab qolish qobiliyati. Shuning uchun, u "chalg'itmaslikdan ozodlik" tushunchasini o'z ichiga oladi.
  • O'zgaruvchan e'tibor: Aqliy moslashuvchanlik qobiliyati, bu odamlarga diqqat markazini o'zgartirishga va turli xil bilim talablariga ega bo'lgan vazifalar o'rtasida harakat qilishga imkon beradi.
  • Ajratilgan e'tibor: Bu bir nechta topshiriqlarga yoki bir nechta topshiriq talablariga bir vaqtning o'zida javob berish qobiliyatini anglatadi.

Ushbu model juda xilma-xil patologiyalarda diqqatni baholashda juda foydali ekanligi, kundalik qiyinchiliklar bilan chambarchas bog'liqligi va ayniqsa, bir xil mualliflarning nevrologik bemorlarini reabilitatsiya qilish dasturi kabi diqqatni jalb qilish dasturlarini ishlab chiqishda juda foydali ekanligi ko'rsatilgan.

  • Diqqat: Zehnlilik e'tiborning klinik modeli sifatida kontseptsiya qilingan.[63] Diqqat amaliyotlar - bu e'tiborni jalb qilish funktsiyalarini ta'kidlaydigan klinik tadbirlar.[64]

Nerv o'zaro bog'liq

Ko'pgina tajribalar shuni ko'rsatadiki asab bilan bog'liq e'tiborni kuchaytirishni kuchaytiradi. Agar hayvonlar stimulga qo'shilmaganda neyron stimulga ma'lum darajada javob bersa, u holda hayvon stimulga qatnashganda, stimulning fizik xususiyatlari bir xil bo'lsa ham, neyronning reaktsiyasi kuchayadi.

2007 yilgi sharhda Knudsen[65] umumiyroq tavsiflaydi model e'tiborning to'rtta asosiy jarayonini aniqlaydi ishlaydigan xotira markazda:

  • Ishlaydigan xotira batafsil tahlil qilish uchun ma'lumotni vaqtincha saqlaydi.
  • Raqobatbardosh tanlov - bu qaysi ma'lumot ishchi xotiraga kirishini aniqlaydigan jarayon.
  • Yuqoridan pastga sezgirlikni boshqarish orqali yuqori kognitiv jarayonlar ishchi xotiraga kirish uchun raqobatlashadigan axborot kanallarida signal intensivligini tartibga solishi va shu bilan ularga raqobatbardosh tanlov jarayonida ustunlik berishi mumkin. Yuqoridan pastga sezgirlikni boshqarish orqali ish xotirasining bir lahzali tarkibi yangi ma'lumotlarning tanlanishiga ta'sir qilishi va shu bilan takroriy tsiklda (endogen e'tibor) diqqatni ixtiyoriy boshqarishda vositachilik qilishi mumkin.[66]
  • Pastdan yuqoriga qarab farqlash filtrlari avtomatik ravishda kamdan-kam uchraydigan stimullarga yoki instinktiv yoki o'rganilgan biologik dolzarblik (ekzogen e'tibor) ta'siriga ta'sirni kuchaytiradi.[66]

Asabiy jihatdan, turli xil ierarxik darajalarda kosmik xaritalar hissiy sohalardagi faollikni kuchaytirishi yoki inhibe qilishi va ko'z harakati kabi yo'naltirilgan harakatlarni keltirib chiqarishi mumkin.

  • Ierarxiyaning yuqori qismida frontal ko'z maydonlari (FEF) va dorsolateral prefrontal korteks retinotsentrik fazoviy xaritani o'z ichiga oladi. Mikrostimulyatsiya FEF-da maymunlarni a qilishga undaydi sakkad tegishli joyga. Sakkadni keltirib chiqarish uchun juda past darajadagi stimulyatsiya, shunga qaramay, tegishli sohada joylashgan stimullarga kortikal javoblarni kuchaytiradi.
  • Keyingi pastki sathda turli xil fazoviy xaritalar mavjud parietal korteks. Xususan, lateral intraparietal maydon (LIP) diqqat xaritasini o'z ichiga oladi va FEF bilan ham, sezgir sohalar bilan ham o'zaro bog'liqdir.
  • Insonlar va maymunlarda ekzogen diqqat ko'rsatmasi pastdan yuqoriga qarab xaritada ko'rsatilgan birlamchi vizual korteks.[55][3] Pastroqda umurtqali hayvonlar, bu aniqlik xaritasi ehtimol ko'proq ustun kolikulus (optik tektum).[67]
  • Diqqatga ta'sir ko'rsatadigan ba'zi bir avtomatik javoblar, masalan, juda sezilarli stimulga yo'naltirish, subkortik vositachilik vositasida ustun kollikulalar.
  • Neyron tarmoq darajasida shunga o'xshash jarayonlar deb o'ylashadi lateral inhibisyon tanlov tanlovi jarayonida vositachilik qilish.

Ko'p holatlarda e'tibor o'zgaradi EEG. Ko'pgina hayvonlar, shu jumladan odamlar ham hosil beradi gamma to'lqinlari (40-60 Hz) e'tiborni muayyan ob'ekt yoki faoliyatga qaratganda.[68][69][39][70]

Kabi tadqiqotchilar tomonidan keng qo'llaniladigan yana bir model Maykl Pozner. U diqqatni uchta funktsional qismga ajratadi: ogohlantirish, yo'naltirish va ijro etuvchi e'tibor[51][71] bir-biriga ta'sir qilishi va ta'sir qilishi mumkin.[72][73][74]

Madaniy xilma-xillik

Bolalarda o'z oilalari, jamoalari va ular ishtirok etadigan muassasalarning madaniy amaliyotlari bilan bog'liq e'tibor shakllari paydo bo'ladi.[78]

1955 yilda, Jyul Anri bir vaqtning o'zida bir necha darajadagi e'tiborni anglashga chaqiradigan ko'plab doimiy manbalardan kelib chiqadigan signallarga nisbatan sezgirlik bo'yicha ijtimoiy farqlar mavjudligini ta'kidladi. U o'z taxminlarini bolalar turli xil munosabatlarga ega bo'lgan murakkab ijtimoiy jamoaga jalb qilingan jamoalarning etnografik kuzatuvlari bilan bog'ladi.[6]

Ko'pchilik Amerika qit'asidagi mahalliy bolalar asosan o'rganish kuzatish O'rta sinf Evropa-Amerika sharoitiga qaraganda Shimoliy va Markaziy Amerikaning tub aholisida o'rganishga katta e'tiborni jalb qilish juda keng tarqalganligini tasdiqlovchi bir qancha tadqiqotlar mavjud.[79] Bu to'g'ridan-to'g'ri natijadir Kuzatish va pitching orqali o'rganish model.

O'tkir e'tibor - bu kuzatish va pitching orqali o'rganish talab va natijasidir. Bolalarni jamoaga qo'shib qo'yish ularga yo'naltirilmagan tadbirlarni diqqat bilan kuzatib borish va o'z hissalarini qo'shish imkoniyatini beradi. Kabi turli xil mahalliy jamoalar va madaniyatlardan ko'rish mumkin Mayya ning San-Pedro, bolalar bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta tadbirlarda qatnashishlari mumkin.[6] Ko'pchilik Mayya bolalar foydali kuzatuvlar o'tkazish uchun birdaniga bir nechta tadbirlarga e'tibor berishni o'rgandilar.[80]

Masalan, bir vaqtning o'zida bir nechta tadbirlarga to'xtovsiz e'tibor berishni o'z ichiga olgan bir vaqtning o'zida e'tiborni jalb qilish. Bir vaqtning o'zida diqqatni jalb qilish strategiyasi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin bo'lgan boshqa madaniy amaliyot - bu guruh ichidagi muvofiqlashtirish. San Pedro kichkintoylari va tarbiyachilari tez-tez o'z faoliyatini guruhlarning boshqa a'zolari bilan dyadik uslubda emas, balki ko'p yo'lli ishlarda muvofiqlashtirdilar.[6][34] Tadqiqot natijalariga ko'ra, tub amerikaliklar bilan yaqin aloqada bo'lgan bolalar, ayniqsa, kuzatuvchi bo'lish istagi yuqori.[35]

Modelni kuzatish va piching qilish yo'li bilan o'rganish diqqatni boshqarishning faol darajasini talab qiladi. Bola qarovchilar kundalik mashg'ulotlar va vazifalar bilan shug'ullanayotganda hozir bo'ladi: to'quv, dehqonchilik va tirikchilik uchun zarur bo'lgan boshqa ko'nikmalar. Being present allows the child to focus their attention on the actions being performed by their parents, elders, and/or older siblings.[79] In order to learn in this way, keen attention and focus is required. Eventually the child is expected to be able to perform these skills themselves.

Modelling

Domenida kompyuterni ko'rish, efforts have been made to model the mechanism of human attention, especially the bottom-up intentional mechanism[81] and its semantic significance in classification of video contents.[82][83] Ikkalasi ham spatial attention va temporal attention have been incorporated in such classification efforts.

Generally speaking, there are two kinds of models to mimic the bottom-up salience mechanism in static images. One way is based on the spatial contrast analysis. For example, a center–surround mechanism has been used to define salience across scales, inspired by the putative neural mechanism.[84] It has also been hypothesized that some visual inputs are intrinsically salient in certain background contexts and that these are actually task-independent. This model has established itself as the exemplar for salience detection and consistently used for comparison in the literature;[81] the other way is based on the frequency domain analysis. This method was first proposed by Hou et al.,[85] this method was called SR, and then PQFT method was also introduced. Both SR and PQFT only use the phase information.[81] In 2012, the HFT method was introduced, and both the amplitude and the phase information are made use of.[86] The Neural Abstraction Pyramid[87] is a hierarchical recurrent convolutional model, which incorporates bottom-up and top-down flow of information to iteratively interpret images.

Gemispatial beparvolik

Asosiy maqola: Gemispatial beparvolik

Hemispatial neglect, also called unilateral neglect, often occurs when people have damage to their right hemisphere.[88] This damage often leads to a tendency to ignore the left side of one's body or even the left side of an object that can be seen. Damage to the left side of the brain (the left hemisphere) rarely yields significant neglect of the right side of the body or object in the person's local environments.[89]

The effects of spatial neglect, however, may vary and differ depending on what area of the brain was damaged. Damage to different neural substrates can result in different types of neglect. Attention disorders (lateralized and nonlaterized) may also contribute to the symptoms and effects.[89] Much research has asserted that damage to gray matter within the brain results in spatial neglect.[90]

New technology has yielded more information, such that there is a large, distributed network of frontal, parietal, temporal, and subcortical brain areas that have been tied to neglect.[91] This network can be related to other research as well; The dorsal attention network is tied to spatial orienting.[92] The effect of damage to this network may result in patients neglecting their left side when distracted about their right side or an object on their right side.[88]

Attention in social contexts

Social attention is one special form of attention that involves the allocation of limited processing resources in a social context. Previous studies on social attention often regard how attention is directed toward socially relevant stimuli such as faces and gaze directions of other individuals.[93] In contrast to attending-to-others, a different line of researches has shown that self-related information such as own face and name automatically captures attention and is preferentially processed comparing to other-related information.[94] These contrasting effects between attending-to-others and attending-to-self prompt a synthetic view in a recent Opinion article [95] proposing that social attention operates at two polarizing states: In one extreme, individual tends to attend to the self and prioritize self-related information over others', and, in the other extreme, attention is allocated to other individuals to infer their intentions and desires. Attending-to-self and attending-to-others mark the two ends of an otherwise continuum spectrum of social attention. For a given behavioral context, the mechanisms underlying these two polarities might interact and compete with each other in order to determine a saliency map of social attention that guides our behaviors.[95] An imbalanced competition between these two behavioral and cognitive processes will cause cognitive disorders and neurological symptoms such as autizm spektri disorders and Uilyams sindromi.

Distracting factors

According to Daniel Goleman's book, Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence, there are two types of distracting factors affecting focus – sensory and emotional. A sensory distracting factor would be, for example, while a person is reading this article, they are neglecting the white field surrounding the text. An emotional distracting factor would be when someone is focused on answering an email, and somebody shouts their name. It would be almost impossible to neglect the voice speaking it. Attention is immediately directed toward the source.

Failure to attend

Inattentional blindness was first introduced in 1998 by Arien Mack and Irvic Rock. Their studies show that when people are focused on specific stimuli, they often miss other stimuli that are clearly present. Though actual blindness is not occurring here, the blindness that happens is due to the perceptual load of what is being attended too.[96] Based on the experiment performed by Mack and Rock, Ula Finch and Nilli Lavie tested participants with a perceptual task. They presented subjects with a cross, one arm being longer than the other, for 5 trials. On the sixth trial, a white square was added to the top left of the screen. The results conclude that out of 10 participants, only 2 (10%) actually saw the square. This would suggest that when a higher focus was attended to the length of the crossed arms, the more likely someone would altogether miss an object that was in plain sight.[97]

Change blindness was first tested by Rensink and coworkers in 1997. Their studies show that people have difficulty detecting changes from scene to scene due to the intense focus on one thing, or lack of attention overall. This was tested by Rensink through a presentation of a picture, and then a blank field, and then the same picture but with an item missing. The results showed that the pictures had to be alternated back and forth a good amount of times for participants to notice the difference. This idea is greatly portrayed in films that have continuity errors. Many people do not pick up on differences when in reality, the changes tend to be significant. [98]

History of the study

Philosophical period

Psixolog Daniel E. Berlyne credits the first extended treatment of attention to philosopher Nikolas Malebranche in his work "The Search After Truth". "Malebranche held that we have access to ideas, or mental representations of the external world, but not direct access to the world itself."[7] Thus in order to keep these ideas organized, attention is necessary. Otherwise we will confuse these ideas. Malebranche writes in "The Search After Truth", "because it often happens that the understanding has only confused and imperfect perceptions of things, it is truly a cause of our errors.... It is therefore necessary to look for means to keep our perceptions from being confused and imperfect. And, because, as everyone knows, there is nothing that makes them clearer and more distinct than attentiveness, we must try to find the means to become more attentive than we are".[99] According to Malebranche, attention is crucial to understanding and keeping thoughts organized.

Faylasuf Gotfrid Vilgelm Leybnits tushunchasini kiritdi apperception to this philosophical approach to attention. Apperception refers to "the process by which new experience is assimilated to and transformed by the residuum of past experience of an individual to form a new whole."[100] Apperception is required for a perceived event to become a conscious event. Leibniz emphasized a reflexive involuntary view of attention known as exogenous orienting. However, there is also endogenous orienting which is voluntary and directed attention. Faylasuf Johann Friedrich Herbart agreed with Leibniz's view of apperception; however, he expounded on it in by saying that new experiences had to be tied to ones already existing in the mind. Herbart was also the first person to stress the importance of applying mathematical modeling to the study of psychology.[7]

In the beginning of the 19th century, it was thought that people were not able to attend to more than one stimulus at a time. However, with research contributions by Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet this view was changed. Hamilton proposed a view of attention that likened its capacity to holding marbles. You can only hold a certain amount of marbles at a time before it starts to spill over. His view states that we can attend to more than one stimulus at once. Uilyam Stenli Jevons later expanded this view and stated that we can attend to up to four items at a time.[iqtibos kerak]

During this period of attention, various philosophers made significant contributions to the field. They began the research on the extent of attention and how attention is directed.

1860–1909

This period of attention research took the focus from conceptual findings to experimental testing. It also involved psychophysical methods that allowed measurement of the relation between physical stimulus properties and the psychological perceptions of them. This period covers the development of attentional research from the founding of psychology to 1909.

Wilhelm Wundt introduced the study of attention to the field of psychology. Wundt measured mental processing speed by likening it to differences in stargazing measurements. Astronomers in this time would measure the time it took for stars to travel. Among these measurements when astronomers recorded the times, there were personal differences in calculation. These different readings resulted in different reports from each astronomer. To correct for this, a personal equation ishlab chiqilgan. Wundt applied this to mental processing speed. Wundt realized that the time it takes to see the stimulus of the star and write down the time was being called an "observation error" but actually was the time it takes to switch voluntarily one's attention from one stimulus to another. Wundt called his school of psychology ixtiyoriylik. It was his belief that psychological processes can only be understood in terms of goals and consequences.

Frantsisk Donders ishlatilgan mental chronometry to study attention and it was considered a major field of intellectual inquiry by authors such as Zigmund Freyd. Donders and his students conducted the first detailed investigations of the speed of mental processes. Donders measured the time required to identify a stimulus and to select a motor response. This was the time difference between stimulus discrimination and response initiation. Donders also formalized the subtractive method which states that the time for a particular process can be estimated by adding that process to a task and taking the difference in reaction time between the two tasks. He also differentiated between three types of reactions: simple reaction, choice reaction, and go/no-go reaction.

Hermann fon Helmgols also contributed to the field of attention relating to the extent of attention. Von Helmholtz stated that it is possible to focus on one stimulus and still perceive or ignore others. An example of this is being able to focus on the letter u in the word house and still perceiving the letters h, o, s, and e.

One major debate in this period was whether it was possible to attend to two things at once (split attention). Valter Benjamin described this experience as "reception in a state of distraction." This disagreement could only be resolved through experimentation.

In 1890, Uilyam Jeyms, in his textbook The Principles of Psychology, ta'kidladi:

Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration, of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a condition which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed, scatterbrained state which in French is called distraction, and Zerstreutheit in German.[101]

James differentiated between censorial attention and intellectual attention. Censorial attention is when attention is directed to objects of sense, stimuli that are physically present. Intellectual attention is attention directed to ideal or represented objects; stimuli that are not physically present. James also distinguished between immediate or derived attention: attention to the present versus to something not physically present. According to James, attention has five major effects. Attention works to make us perceive, conceive, distinguish, remember, and shorten reactions time.

1910–1949

During this period, research in attention waned and interest in behaviorism flourished, leading some to believe, like Ulric Neisser, that in this period, "There was no research on attention". However, Jersild published very important work on "Mental Set and Shift" in 1927. He stated, "The fact of mental set is primary in all conscious activity. The same stimulus may evoke any one of a large number of responses depending upon the contextual setting in which it is placed".[102] This research found that the time to complete a list was longer for mixed lists than for pure lists. For example, if a list was names of animals versus a list of the same size with names of animals, books, makes and models of cars, and types of fruits, it takes longer to process the second list. Bu task switching.

In 1931, Telford discovered the psychological refractory period. The stimulation of neurons is followed by a refractory phase during which neurons are less sensitive to stimulation. 1935 yilda John Ridley Stroop developed the Stroop Task which elicited the Stroop Effect. Stroop's task showed that irrelevant stimulus information can have a major impact on performance. In this task, subjects were to look at a list of colors. This list of colors had each color typed in a color different from the actual text. For example, the word Blue would be typed in Orange, Pink in Black, and so on.

Misol: Moviy Siyohrang Qizil Yashil Siyohrang Yashil

Subjects were then instructed to say the name of the ink color and ignore the text. It took 110 seconds to complete a list of this type compared to 63 seconds to name the colors when presented in the form of solid squares.[7] The naming time nearly doubled in the presence of conflicting color words, an effect known as the Stroop Effect.

1950–1974

1950-yillarda, research psychologists renewed their interest in attention when the dominant epistemology shifted from positivism (i.e., bixeviorizm) ga realizm during what has come to be known as the "cognitive revolution".[103] The cognitive revolution admitted unobservable cognitive processes like attention as legitimate objects of scientific study.

Modern research on attention began with the analysis of the "mexnat partiyasi muammosi"tomonidan Kolin Cherry in 1953. At a cocktail party how do people select the conversation that they are listening to and ignore the rest? This problem is at times called "focused attention", as opposed to "divided attention". Cherry performed a number of experiments which became known as dichotic tinglash and were extended by Donald Broadbent va boshqalar.[104]:112 In a typical experiment, subjects would use a set of minigarnituralar to listen to two streams of words in different quloqlar and selectively attend to one stream. After the task, the experimenter would question the subjects about the content of the unattended stream.

Broadbent's Filter Model of Attention states that information is held in a pre-attentive temporary store, and only sensory events that have some physical feature in common are selected to pass into the limited capacity processing system. This implies that the meaning of unattended messages is not identified. Also, a significant amount of time is required to shift the filter from one channel to another. Experiments by Gray and Wedderburn and later Anne Treisman pointed out various problems in Broadbent's early model and eventually led to the Deutsch–Norman model in 1968. In this model, no signal is filtered out, but all are processed to the point of activating their stored representations in memory. The point at which attention becomes "selective" is when one of the memory representations is selected for further processing. At any time, only one can be selected, resulting in the attentional bottleneck.[104]:115–116

This debate became known as the early-selection vs. late-selection models. In the early selection models (first proposed by Donald Broadbent), attention shuts down (in Broadbent's model) or attenuates (in Triesman's refinement) processing in the unattended ear before the mind can analyze its semantic content. In the late selection models (first proposed by J. Anthony Deutsch and Diana Deutsch), the content in both ears is analyzed semantically, but the words in the unattended ear cannot access consciousness.[105] Lavie's perceptual load theory, however, "provided elegant solution to" what had once been a "heated debate".[106]

Shuningdek qarang

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