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Tushunchalar Klassik Advaita vedanta Atman Braxman Avidya Ajativada Mahavakyas Om Tat Tvam Asi Uch tan Aham Sabab va natija Kosha Kashmir shayvizmi Pratyabhijna soham
Amaliyotlar Guru Meditatsiya Svadhyaya Sravana, manana, nididhyasana Jnana yoga Raja yoga "O'rtani ochish" O'z-o'zini tekshirish
Moksha Moksha Anubxava Turiya Sahaja
Matnlar Advaita Vedanta Prastanatrayi Asosiy Upanishadlar Braxma sutralari Bhagavad Gita Shankara Upadesasahasri Shankaraga tegishli Vivekachudamani Atma bodha Boshqalar Avadxuta Gita Yoga Vasistha Yoga Yajnavalkya Advaita Bodha Deepika Dŗg-Dya-Viveka Sadanandadan Vedantasara Kashmir shayvizmi Vasugupta shiva sutralari Neo-Vedanta Vivekananda asarlari Inchegeri Sampradaya Dasbodh
O'qituvchilar Klassik Advaita Vedanta Gaudapada Adi Shankara Mandana Misra Suresvara Vakaspati Miśra Padmapadacharya Amalananda Chandrashekarendra Saraswati Sringeri Sharada Pitemdan Jagadguru Zamonaviy Advaita Vedanta Vijnanabhiksu Swami Sivananda Swami Chinmayananda Swami Dayananda Ramana Maxarshi Nisargadatta Maharaj Shaivizm / Tantra / Nath Gorakshanat Matsyendranat Advaita o'qituvchilari Neo-Advaita Ramakrishna Swami Vivekananda H. W. L. Poonja Endryu Koen Jan Klayn Gangaji Rupert Spira Boshqalar Osho Ekxart Tolle Robert Adams
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Grant Akademik Pol Dussen Daniel H. H. Ingalls Richard De Smet Pol Dussen Eliot Deutsch Sengaku Mayeda Maks Myuller Xajime Nakamura Patrik Olivelle Anantanand Rambachan Arvind Sharma Akademik bo'lmagan Devid Godman
Kategoriyalar Advaita Advaita Vedanta Vishishtadvaita Vedanta Advaita Shaivizm Kashmir shayvizmi Inchegeri Sampradaya Nondualizm Neo-Advaita o'qituvchilari
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Qismi bir qator kuni
Hind falsafasi
Pravoslav
Samxya Yoga Nyaya Vaisheshika Mimamsa Vedanta
Heterodoks
Charvaka Ājīvika Buddizm Jaynizm
Kichik maktablar Smartist Advaita Vaishnavit Vishishtadvaita Dvaita Bhedabheda Dvaitadvaita Achintya Bheda Abheda Shuddadvaita Akshar-Purushottam Darshan Shaivite Shaiva Siddhanta Pratyabxijna Panchartika Pramanavada Shakti Vishishtadvaita Trika Shiva Bhedabeda Shivadvaita
O'qituvchilar (Acharyas) Nyaya Akṣapāda Gotama Jayanta Bxatta Ragunatha Siromani Mmṃsā Jaymi Kumarila Baxa Prabxakara Advaita Adi Shankara Vishishtadvaita Ramanuja Dvaita Madhva Achintyabhedabhed Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Dvaitadvait Nimbarka Shuddadvaita Vallabha Akshar-Purushottam Darshan Swaminarayan Tantra Shakta Abhinavagupta Nigamananda Paramaxansa Ramprasad sen Bamakepa Kamalakanta Battacharya Anandamayi Ma Boshqalar Samxya Kapila Yoga Patanjali Vaisheshika Kanada, Prashastapada
Asosiy matnlar Sruti Smriti Vedalar Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Upanishadlar Asosiy Upanishadlar Kichik Upanishadlar Boshqa oyatlar Bhagavat Gita Agama (hinduizm) Vachanamrut Shastralar va Sutralar Braxma sutralari Samxya sutralari Mimamsa Sutras Nyaya Sitras Vaiśika Sūtra Yoga sutralari Pramana sutralari Puranalar Dharma Shastra Artha Śastra Kamasutra Naalayira Divya Prabhandham Tirumuray Shiva Samhita
Hinduizm Boshqa hind falsafalari
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Ushbu maqolada mavjud Hind matni. Tegishli bo'lmagan holda qo'llab-quvvatlash, ko'rishingiz mumkin savol belgilari yoki qutilar, hind matni o'rniga noto'g'ri unli harflar yoki yo'qolgan qo'shma qo'shimchalar.

Advaita Vedanta (/ʌðˈvaɪtəvɛˈðɑːntə/; Sanskritcha: ्वैत वेदान्त, IAST: Advaita Vedanta, so'zma-so'z "ikkilammaslik") a maktab ning Hind falsafasi, va hind an'analarida ma'naviy amalga oshirishning klassik tizimi.^[1] Atama Advaita degan fikrga ishora qiladi Braxman yakka o'zi oxir-oqibat haqiqiy, fenomenal o'tkinchi dunyo - bu xayoliy ko'rinish (maya) Brahman va haqiqiy o'zini, atman, dan farq qilmaydi Braxman.^[2][3][4]

Dastlab sifatida tanilgan Puruṣavada^{[5][eslatma 1]} va kabi māyāvāda,^[6][7][8][9] ushbu maktabning izdoshlari sifatida tanilgan Advaita Vedantins, yoki shunchaki Advaitinlar,^[10] fenomenal dunyoni jaholat tuyg'usi taassurotlari bilan boshdan kechirilgan ko'plikning shunchaki xayoliy ko'rinishi sifatida ko'rib chiqish (avidya), illyuziya (adhyasa) Brahmanning yagona haqiqati haqida.^[11] Ular izlaydilar moksha (ozodlik) fenomenal dunyoning bu illusiyasini tan olish va sotib olish orqali vidya (bilim)^[12] shaxsning haqiqiy kimligi Atmanva kimligi Atman va Braxman.^[13][14][15]

Adi Shankara, Advaita Vedanta an'analarining eng taniqli namoyandasi.

Advaita Vedanta o'z ildizlarini eng qadimgi davrga qadar izlaydi Upanishadlar. Deb nomlangan uchta matn manbalariga asoslanadi Prastanatrayi. Bu "Upanishadlarning butun tanasini birlashtiruvchi talqinini" beradi,^[16] The Braxma sutralari, va Bhagavad Gita.^{[17][veb 1]} Advaita Vedānta - qadimgi eng qadimgi kichik maktab Vedanta,^[2-eslatma] bu oltitadan biri pravoslav (astikaHindu falsafalari (darśana). Ildizlari miloddan avvalgi 1-ming yilliklarga borib taqalsa ham, Advaita Vedanta-ning eng taniqli namoyandasi an'ana bo'yicha VIII asrning olimi hisoblanadi Adi Shankara.^[18][19][20]

Advaita Vedanta ta'kidlaydi Jivanmukti, degan fikr moksha (erkinlik, ozodlik) ta'kidlaydigan boshqa hind falsafalaridan farqli o'laroq, bu hayotda erishish mumkin videhamukti, yoki moksha o'limdan keyin.^[21][22] Maktab kabi tushunchalardan foydalaniladi Braxman, Atman, Mayya, Avidya, meditatsiya va hindlarning asosiy diniy an'analarida uchraydigan boshqa narsalar,^{[veb 1][23][24]} ammo moksha nazariyalari uchun ularni o'ziga xos tarzda izohlaydi.^[25][26] Advaita Vedanta - klassik hind tafakkurining eng o'rganilgan va eng ta'sirli maktablaridan biri.^[27][28][29] Ko'pgina olimlar buni bir shakli sifatida tasvirlashadi monizm,^[30][31][32] boshqalar esa Advaita kabi falsafa dualistik bo'lmagan.^[33][34] Advaita din emas, balki falsafa yoki ma'naviy yo'l deb hisoblanadi, chunki unga ergashganlardan ma'lum bir e'tiqod yoki mazhab bo'lishini talab qilmaydi.^[35][36][37]

Advaita hind falsafasining turli xil urf-odatlari va matnlariga ta'sir ko'rsatdi va ta'sir ko'rsatdi Samxya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vedanta shahrining boshqa kichik maktablari, Vaishnavizm, Shaivizm, Puranalar, Agamalarkabi ijtimoiy harakatlar kabi Bhakti harakati.^[38][39][40] Hinduizmdan tashqari Advaita Vedanta Hindistonning boshqa urf-odatlari bilan ta'sir o'tkazdi va rivojlandi Jaynizm va Buddizm.^[41] Advaita Vedannta matnlari idealizmdan, shu jumladan illuzionizmdan Shankaraning dastlabki asarlarida ifodalangan realistik yoki deyarli realistik pozitsiyalargacha bo'lgan turli xil qarashlarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi.^[42] Zamonaviy davrda uning qarashlari har xil ko'rinishda Neo-Vedanta harakatlar.^[43] U hindlar ma'naviyatining paradigmatik namunasi deb nomlangan.^[44][45]

Etimologiya va nomenklatura

So'z Advaita sanskritcha ikkita so'zdan iborat:

• "A-" (अ) prefiksi, "bo'lmagan" ma'nosini anglatadi
• "Ikkilamchi" yoki "dualizm" degan ma'noni anglatuvchi "Dvaita" (द्वैत).^{[iqtibos kerak]}

Advaita ko'pincha "noaniqlik" deb tarjima qilinadi, ammo yanada mosroq tarjima "ikkilammaslik".^[4] Demak, bundan boshqa haqiqat yo'q Braxman, "haqiqat qismlar bilan tashkil etilmaydi", ya'ni doimo o'zgarib turadigan "narsalar" o'zlarining mavjudligiga ega emas, balki mavjud bo'lgan Braxmanning ko'rinishlari; va insonning mohiyati yoki borligi o'rtasida ikkilik yo'qligi (atman) va Braxman, Vujudning zamini.^{[2][3][4][3-eslatma]}

So'z Vedanta ikki sanskritcha so'zdan iborat: so'z Veda vedik matnlarning butun korpusini nazarda tutadi va "anta" so'zi "oxir" degan ma'noni anglatadi. Ning ma'nosi Vedanta "vedalar oxiri" yoki "vedalar to'g'risida yakuniy bilim" deb xulosa qilish mumkin. Vedanta oltita pravoslav maktablaridan biridir Hind falsafasi.

Dastlab sifatida tanilgan Puruṣavada,^{[5][eslatma 1]} va kabi māyāvāda, o'xshash Madhyamaka Buddizm, hodisalar oxir-oqibat o'ziga xos mohiyat yoki haqiqatga ega emasligini ta'kidlaganligi sababli,^[6][7][8][9] Advaita Vedānta maktabi tarixiy jihatdan turli xil nomlar bilan yuritilgan, masalan Advaita-vada (Advaita ma'ruzachisi), Abheda-darshana (farqning ko'rinmasligi), Dvaita-vada-pratisedha (ikkilangan farqlarni inkor etish) va Kevala-dvaita (ajratilganlarning dualizmi emas).^[46]

Buddist va Osiyo tadqiqotlari professori Richard Kingning so'zlariga ko'ra, bu atama Advaita birinchi nasrda taniqli Vedantik kontekstda uchraydi Mandukya Upanishad.^[46] Aksincha, sanskrit va vedika tadqiqotlariga ixtisoslashgan falsafa professori Frits Stalning so'zlariga ko'ra Advaita Vedik davridan va Vedik donishmandidir Yajnavalkya (Miloddan avvalgi 8 yoki 7-asrlar)^[47][48]) uni yaratgan deb hisoblanadi.^[49] Falsafa va Osiyo tadqiqotlari professori Stiven Fillips tarjima qiladi Advaita ichida oyat parchasini o'z ichiga olgan Brixadaranyaka Upanishad, "Okean, ikkilanmasdan bitta ko'ruvchi dunyosi Brahmanga aylanadi".^[5-eslatma]

Darśana (ko'rinish) - asosiy tashvishlar

Okeanda birlashuvchi tomchi, Atmanning Braxmanga qo'shilishining o'xshashligi

Advaita - Vedanta-ning obunachisi, ikkinchisi oltita klassikadan biri Hindu darśanas, erishishga qaratilgan matnli talqinlar va diniy amaliyotlarning yaxlit bir qismi moksha, transmigrativ mavjudotdan ozod qilish yoki ozod qilish.^{[53][54][6-eslatma]} An'anaviy Advaita Vedannta tadqiqotni va uning to'g'ri tushunchasi deb biladigan narsalarga qaratadi sruti, ochilgan matnlar, ayniqsa asosiy Upanishadlar,^[56][57] bilan birga Braxma sutralari va Bhagavad Gita, ular birgalikda deb nomlanadi Prastantrayi.

To'g'ri tushunish kishining haqiqiy kimligi to'g'risida bilim beradi deb ishoniladi Mantman, shafqatsiz va o'zgarmas guvoh-ong va Dtman va Braxman, natijada ozodlik.^[58][59] Bunga Adi Shankara nimani nazarda tutgan bo'lsa, erishiladi anubhava, zudlik bilan sezgi, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri xabardorlik, bu qurilishsiz va qurilish bilan to'ldirilmaydi. Bu tushuncha emas ning Braxman, ammo buning o'rniga tushuncha bu Braxman.^[60]

To'g'ri bilim, bu esa yo'q qiladi avidya, asl mohiyatini yashiradigan psixologik va idrokiy xatolarni tashkil etadigan johillik Atman va Braxman,^[61] ning to'rt bosqichini bajarish natijasida olinadi samanyasa (o'z-o'zini etishtirish), sravana, donishmandlarning ta'limotlarini tinglash, manana, ta'limotlar haqida mulohaza yuritish va svadhyaya, "bu Sen" degan haqiqatni mulohaza qilish.

Advaita Vedānta an'anasi dualizmni rad etadi Samxya purusha (asosiy ong) va prakriti (inert dastlabki materiya),^[7-eslatma] Ushbu postulatsiyani qabul qilib, Advaita va boshqa Vedanta an'analari uchun turli xil javoblarni taklif qiladigan turli xil nazariy qiyinchiliklar paydo bo'ladi.^{[64][8-eslatma]}

Asosiy savol - bu o'zaro bog'liqlik Atman va Braxman, ularni bir xil bo'lishiga qarab hal qilinadi.^[65][66] Bu haqiqat qadimgi zamonlardanoq aniqlanadi Asosiy Upanishadlar va Braxma sutralari, shuningdek, qismlarida uchraydi Bhagavad Gita va boshqa ko'plab hind matnlari,^{[veb 1]} va o'z-o'zidan ravshan deb hisoblanadi. Sharhlarning asosiy maqsadi ushbu nondualistikni qo'llab-quvvatlashdir Atman va Braxman) o'qish sruti.^[67] Vahiyni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun sabab ishlatiladi sruti, haqiqatning yakuniy manbai.^{[68][9-eslatma]}

Yana bir savol - bu Brahman dunyoni qanday yaratishi va fenomenal haqiqatning ko'p qirraliligini qanday tushuntirishdir.^[70][65][66] Favqulodda haqiqatni "illyuziya" deb e'lon qilish bilan Atman / Brahmanning ustunligini saqlab qolish mumkin.^[65][66]

Advaita adabiyoti shuningdek qarama-qarshi tizimlarni, shu jumladan dualistik hinduizm maktabini va boshqalarni tanqid qiladi Nastika buddizm kabi (heterodoks) falsafalar.^[67]

Moksha - Braxman haqidagi bilim orqali ozodlik

Puruxarta - inson hayotining to'rtta maqsadi

Advaita, boshqa maktablar singari, insoniyat hayotining to'rtta maqsadi tabiiy va to'g'ri deb topilgan Puruxartani qabul qiladi:^[71]

• Dharma: hayotga to'g'ri yo'l, "shaxsning o'zi va jamiyat oldidagi, shuningdek, jamiyatning shaxs oldidagi vazifalari va majburiyatlari";^[72]
• Arta: o'z hayotini qo'llab-quvvatlash va qo'llab-quvvatlash vositasi;
• Kama: zavq va zavq;
• Mokyaozod qilish, ozod qilish.

Ulardan Advaita Vedanta falsafasining aksariyati oxirgi hayotga qaratilgan bo'lib, hozirgi hayotida ozodlikka erishmoqda.^[73] Dastlabki uchta Advaitins tomonidan muhokama qilinadi va rag'batlantiriladi, lekin odatda Brahmanni bilish va o'zini o'zi anglash sharoitida.^[74]

Moksha - ozodlik

Advaitada soteriologik maqsad - bu o'z-o'zini bilish va shaxsning to'liq tushunchasini olishdir Atman va Braxman. Atman va Braxman to'g'risidagi to'g'ri bilim barcha dualistik tendentsiyalarni yo'q qilishga olib keladi ozodlik,^[10-eslatma] Mokshaga Otman va Atman va Braxmanning o'ziga xosligini anglash, bu hayotda o'z tabiatini Braxman sifatida to'liq anglash orqali erishiladi.^[13] Buni Shankara quyidagicha bayon qiladi:

Men ism, shakl va harakatdan boshqa odamman.
Mening tabiatim doimo erkin!
Men O'zimman, eng shartsiz Brahman.
Men sof xabardorman, har doim dual bo'lmagan.

— Adi Shankara, Upadesasahasri 11.7, ^[13]

Advaita Vedanta so'zlariga ko'ra, ozodlikka yashash paytida erishish mumkin va uni chaqirishadi Jivanmukti.^[75] Atva bilimi, ya'ni haqiqiy O'zlik haqidagi bilim va uning Brahmanga bo'lgan munosabati Advaita fikrida ushbu ozodlik uchun muhim ahamiyatga ega.^[11-eslatma] Atman-bilim, Advaitinsga ko'ra, o'z ichidagi ilohiylikni, boshqalardagi va barcha mavjudotdagi ilohiylikni, ikkilamchi birdamlikni anglaydigan, hamma darajadagi ikkiliklarni engib chiqadigan to'liq anglash, ozodlik va erkinlik holatidir, Brahman hamma narsada, va hamma narsa Brahman.^[77][78][79]

Ga binoan Rambachan, Advaitada bu o'z-o'zini bilishni ozod qilish holati "o'zlik hamma narsaning o'zi, o'zini biluvchi o'zini barcha mavjudotlarda va barcha mavjudotlarni o'zida ko'radi" degan tushunchani o'z ichiga oladi va olib keladi.^[80]

Jivanmukta

Advaita Vedanta-da, qiziqish hayotdan keyingi ozodlikka emas, balki hozirgi hayotga bog'liq.^[81] Ushbu maktab ozodlikka yashash paytida erishish mumkin deb hisoblaydi va bunga erishgan odam a Jivanmukta.^[75][82]

Ramana Maxarshi, Jivanmukta sifatida keng tanilgan hind donishmandi

Tushunchasi Jivanmukti Advaita Vedantaning qarama-qarshiligi Videhamukti (vafotidan keyin samsaradan moksha) Vedantaning teistik sub-maktablarida.^[83] Jivanmukti - bu shaxsning tabiati, atributlari va xatti-harakatlarini o'zgartiradigan holat, bundan keyin ozod qilingan shaxs quyidagi kabi xususiyatlarni namoyish etadi:^[84]

• uni hurmatsizlik bezovta qilmaydi va shafqatsiz so'zlarga dosh beradi, boshqalar unga qanday munosabatda bo'lishidan qat'iy nazar boshqalarga hurmat bilan munosabatda bo'ladi;
• g'azablangan odamga duch kelganda, u g'azabini qaytarmaydi, aksincha yumshoq va muloyim so'zlar bilan javob beradi;
• hatto qiynoqqa solingan bo'lsa ham, u gapiradi va haqiqatga ishonadi;
• u marhamat istamaydi yoki boshqalardan maqtov kutmaydi;
• u hech qachon biron bir hayotga yoki mavjudotga zarar etkazmaydi yoki zarar etkazmaydi (ahimsa), u barcha mavjudotlar farovonligini ko'zlaydi;
• u boshqalar huzurida bo'lgani kabi yolg'iz qolish uchun qulay;
• u mituna (mendikantlar ittifoqi), grama (qishloq) va nagara (shahar) da bo'lganidek, yordamsiz ko'ylak kiygan daraxt tagida piyola bilan bemalol;
• u g'amxo'rlik qilmaydi yoki kiyinmaydi (diniy sabablarga ko'ra boshning orqa qismidagi sochlar) va tanadagi muqaddas ip. Uning uchun bilim - bu siha, bilim - bu muqaddas ip, faqat bilim - bu oliydir. Tashqi ko'rinish va marosimlar u uchun muhim emas, faqat bilim muhimdir;
• u uchun xudolarni chaqirish yoki ishdan bo'shatish, mantrani ham, mantrani ham yo'q, sajda qilish yoki xudolarga, ma'buda yoki ajdodlarga sajda qilish, O'zlikni bilishdan boshqa narsa yo'q;
• u kamtar, ruhi baland, tiniq va barqaror fikrga ega, to'g'ri, rahmdil, sabrli, befarq, jasur, qat'iy va shirin so'zlar bilan gapiradi.

Vidya, Svadxiya va Anubxava

Sruti (oyatlar), to'g'ri mulohaza va mulohaza yuritish bilimning asosiy manbalari (vidya) Advaita Vedannta an'anasi uchun.^[85][86][87] Bu Atman va Braxman to'g'risidagi to'g'ri bilimlarga erishish mumkinligini o'rgatadi svadhyaya,^[88] o'zini va vediya matnlarini o'rganish va amaliyotning uch bosqichi: sravana (idrok, eshitish), manana (fikrlash) va nididyasana (meditatsiya),^[87] bobning 4-bobining ta'limotiga asoslangan uch bosqichli metodologiya Brixadaranyaka Upanishad.^[89][90]

Sravana so'zma-so'z eshitish degan ma'noni anglatadi va keng ko'lamda odatda maslahatchi yoki o'qituvchi yordam beradigan idrok va kuzatuvlarga ishora qiladi (guru),^[91] bu erda Advaitin g'oyalar, tushunchalar, savollar va javoblarni tinglaydi va muhokama qiladi.^[87][89] Manana ushbu munozaralar ustida fikr yuritish va turli xil g'oyalar asosida fikr yuritishni anglatadi svadhyaya va sravana.^[89][91][92] Nididiyasana meditatsiya, haqiqatlarni anglash va natijada ishontirish, ikkilammaslik va fikr va harakatlar birlashuvi mavjud bo'lgan holat, bilish va borliq.^[93][89] Bilimoriyaning ta'kidlashicha, Advaita amaliyotining ushbu uch bosqichi sifatida qarash mumkin sadhana birlashtiradigan amaliyot Yoga va Karma g'oyalar va, ehtimol, bu qadimiy an'analardan kelib chiqqan.^[94][91]

Adi Shankara foydalanadi anubhava bilan almashtirilishi mumkin pratipatta, "tushunish".^[95] Dalal va boshqalar ta'kidlaydilar anubhava qandaydir "sirli tajriba" atrofida emas, balki Braxman to'g'risidagi to'g'ri bilim atrofida.^[86][96] Nikxalananda (bilish) Atman va Braxman faqat orqali erishish mumkin buddi, "sabab"^[97] tasavvuf intuitiv bilimning bir turi ekanligini aytib, shu bilan birga buddi bilimga erishishning eng yuqori vositasidir.^[98]

Mahavakya - Buyuk jumlalar

Bir nechta Mahavakyalaryoki "buyuk jumlalar" Advaitik mavzuga ega, ya'ni "ichki o'lmas o'zlik va buyuk kosmik kuch bir xil".^[99]

Bosqichlar va amaliyotlar

Advaita Vedanta o'z-o'zini izlashdan yoki insonning asl tabiati to'g'risida yalang'och tushunishdan ko'proq narsani o'z ichiga oladi,^[14-eslatma] shuningdek, o'zini tutish, matnshunoslik va axloqiy mukammallikni o'z ichiga oladi. Bu Shankara kabi Advaita klassik kitoblarida tasvirlangan Upadesasahasri^[104] va Vivekachudamani, bu ham Shankaraga tegishli.

Jnana Yoga - amaliyot yo'li

Klassik Advaita Vedanta Jnana Yoga yo'lini ta'kidlaydi, bu o'qish va o'qishga erishish moksha.^[105][106] Bu to'rt fazilatdan iborat,^[107] yoki xulq-atvor malakasi (Samanyasa, Sampattis, sadana-katustaya):^{[108][109][110][15-eslatma]} Talaba Advaita Vedanta - bu to'rt fazilatni rivojlantirish uchun an'ana talab qilinadi -

1. Nityānitya vastu viveka (नित्यानित्य वस्तु विवेकम्) - Viveka - bu haqiqiy va abadiyni to'g'ri ajratish qobiliyati (nitya) va aftidan haqiqiy, xayoliy, o'zgaruvchan va o'tkinchi (anitya).^[108][110]
2. Ihāmutrārtha phala bhoga virāga (इहाऽमुत्रार्थ फलिरागम्) - voz kechish (viraga) bu dunyoda (iha) va boshqa olamlarda aql-idrok lazzatlari uchun barcha aql-idrok istaklari (bhog). Haqiqat va o'zini o'zi bilishga intilish uchun to'siq bo'lgan hamma narsadan voz kechishga tayyor.^[110][111]
3. Āamādi ṣatka sampatti (शमादि षट्क सम्पत्ति) - oltita fazilat yoki fazilatlar -
   1. Śama - aqliy osoyishtalik, ongni yo'naltirish qobiliyati.^[110][111]
   2. Dama - o'zini tutish,^[16-eslatma] mo''tadillikning fazilati.^[110][111] hissiyotlarni cheklash.
   3. Uparati - beparvolik, dunyoviy lazzatlarni istamaslik, jim bo'lish va hamma narsadan ajralib turish qobiliyati;^[110] barcha diniy burch va marosimlarni to'xtatish^[111]
   4. Titikṣa - chidamlilik, qat'iyatlilik, qarama-qarshi juftliklarga chidash (issiqlik va sovuq, zavq va og'riq kabi), qiyin sharoitlarda sabr-toqatli bo'lish qobiliyati^[110][111]
   5. Dradhā - o'qituvchiga va unga ishonish Sruti matnli matnlar^[110]
   6. Samadhana - mamnunlik, har qanday sharoitda ongni qondirish, diqqat, aqlning niyati^[110][111]
4. Mumukutva (मुमुक्षुत्वम्) - erkinlik, ozodlik va donolikka intilish, ilm va idrokni izlashga undadi. Mokshaga hayotning asosiy maqsadi sifatida ega bo'lish^[110][107]

Yo'q qiladigan to'g'ri bilim avidya, Atman va Braxman bilan bog'liq psixologik va idrokiy xatolar,^[15] ichida olingan jnanayoga amaliyotning uch bosqichi orqali,^[109] sravana (eshitish), manana (fikrlash) va nididyasana (meditatsiya).^[87] Ushbu uch bosqichli metodologiya 4-bobning ta'limotiga asoslangan Brixadaranyaka Upanishad:^[89][90]

• Sravana, donishmandlarning ta'limotlarini tinglash Upanishadlar va Advaita Vedanta kabi vedantik matnlarni o'rganmoqdalar Braxma sutralariva bilan munozaralar guru (o'qituvchi, maslahatchi);^{[108][115][87]}
• Manana, ushbu munozaralar ustida fikr yuritish va turli xil g'oyalar asosida fikr yuritishni anglatadi svadhyaya va sravana.^[89] Bu bosqich ta'limotlar haqida mulohaza yuritish;^[89][115]
• Nididiyasana, meditatsiya va introspektsiya bosqichi.^{[110][veb 3]} Amaliyotning ushbu bosqichi haqiqatlarni anglash va natijada ishontirishga qaratilgan, ikkilanmaslik va fikr va harakatlar birlashishi mavjud bo'lgan holat, bilish va borliq.^[93][89]

Samadhi

Shankara ta'kidladi ṇravaṇa ("eshitish"), manana ("aks ettirish") va nididhyāsana ("takroriy meditatsiya"), keyingi kabi matnlar Dṛg-Dya-Viveka (14-asr) va Vedantasara (Sadananda) (15-asr) qo'shilgan samadhi ozod qilish uchun vosita sifatida, bu mavzuni Swami Vivekananda ham ta'kidlagan.

Guru

Advaita Vedānta maktabi an'anaviy ravishda Guru (o'qituvchi) ga katta hurmat bilan qaraydi va ma'naviyatga intilishida vakolatli Guru izlashni tavsiya qiladi. Ammo, Advaita maktabida Guru majburiy emas, deydi Kluni, lekin Vedik adabiyotlarini o'qish va undan keyin fikr yuritish kerak.^[116] Adi Shankara, deydi Komanlar, muntazam ravishda "kabi" qo'shma so'zlarni ishlatgan Sastrakaryopadesa (Muqaddas Bitik va o'qituvchi orqali ko'rsatma) va Vedāntacaryopadesa (Upanishadlar va o'qituvchi tomonidan ko'rsatma) Guru ahamiyatini ta'kidlash uchun ".^[116] Bu Advaita an'anasini aks ettiradi, u vakolatli o'qituvchini to'g'ri bilim olish, o'zini yolg'on bilimlardan xalos qilish va o'zini anglash uchun muhim va muhim deb biladi.^[117]

Guru - bu o'qituvchidan ko'proq narsa, odatda talabalar uchun hurmatga sazovor bo'lgan shaxs guru "maslahatchi bo'lib xizmat qiladi, u qadriyatlarni shakllantirishga yordam beradi, tajribaviy bilimlarni so'zma-so'z bilimlar singari baham ko'radi, hayotda namuna, ilhom manbai va talabaning ma'naviy evolyutsiyasida yordam beradi.^[118] Guru, deydi Joel Mlecko, ma'lum bir bilim turini o'rgatadigan odamga qaraganda ko'proq va uning tarkibiga "maslahatchi, aql va qalbning o'ziga xos ota-onasi, qadriyatlarni va tajriba bilimlarini shakllantirishga yordam beradigan odamni ham qo'shadi". aniq bilim, hayotda namuna, ilhom manbai va hayotning mazmunini ochib beruvchi ".^[118]

Ontologiya

Advaitada oqqush muhim motifdir. Oqqush ajrata olish qobiliyatini ramziy ma'noda anglatadi Satya(Haqiqiy, abadiy) dan Mitya(Haqiqiy bo'lmagan, O'zgaruvchan), xuddi afsonaviy oqqush kabi Paramahamsa suvdan olingan sutni farq qiladi.

Mutlaq haqiqat

Braxman

Advaita Vedanta so'zlariga ko'ra, Braxman eng yuqori Haqiqat,^{[76][119][120]} Bu shunday tug'ilmagan va o'zgarmas,^[119][121] va "sublatable emas",^[76] va hali ham yuqori haqiqat o'rnini bosa olmaydi.^{[122][17-eslatma]} Dan boshqa Braxman, qolgan hamma narsalar, shu jumladan koinot, moddiy narsalar va shaxslar doimo o'zgarib turadi va shuning uchun maya. Braxman Paramarthika Satyam, "Mutlaq haqiqat",^[137] va

haqiqiy O'zlik, sof ong ... yagona haqiqat (o'tirdi), chunki bu farq bilan o'chirilgan, jaholat belgisi va bu narsa sublatable emas ".^[76]

Advaitada Braxman barcha o'zgarishlarning asosi va sababchisidir.^[138][121] Brahman moddiy sabab deb hisoblanadi^[18-eslatma] va samarali sabab^[19-eslatma] mavjud bo'lganlarning hammasi.^{[120][139][140]} Braxman - "koinotni yaratadigan, saqlaydigan va tortib oladigan ibtidoiy haqiqat".^[128] Bu "butun dunyoda amalga oshiriladigan ijodiy printsip".^[141]

Advaitaning Upanishadik ildizlari Braxmanning fazilatlarini ta'kidlaydi^[20-eslatma] bolmoq Sat-cit-ananda (bo'lish-ong-baxt)^[142][143] Bu "haqiqiy borliq-ong-baxt" degan ma'noni anglatadi.^[144][145] yoki "Abadiy saodat ongi".^[146] Adi Shankara buni ushlab turdi satcitananda Braxman va Atman bilan bir xil.^[144] Advaitin olimi Madhusudana Sarasvati Braxmani haqiqat deb tushuntirdi, bu bir vaqtning o'zida yolg'onlikning yo'qligi (o'tirgan), johillikning yo'qligi (sit) va qayg'u / o'z-o'zini cheklashning yo'qligi (ananda).^[144] Ga binoan Adi Shankara, Brahman haqidagi bilim Shruti ta'minotni o'z-o'zidan so'rashdan tashqari boshqa usul bilan olish mumkin emas.^[147]

Mantman

Mantman (IAST: otman, Sanskritcha: आत्मन्) hind falsafasidagi markaziy g'oya va Advaita Vedantaning asosli asosidir. Bu sanskritcha so'z bo'lib, shaxsning "haqiqiy o'zini" anglatadi.^[148][149] "mohiyat",^{[veb 4]} va jon.^[148][150] Shunga qaramay, Ram-Prasadning fikriga ko'ra, "bu" ob'ekt emas, balki "ongning sifatiga ega ob'ektiv" emas, "sub'ektivlik sifatida mavjudlikning kamayib bo'lmaydigan mohiyati" dir.^[151] Bu "barqaror sub'ektivlik yoki ongning yakka sub'ekti emas, balki individuallashtirilgan fenomenallikning barcha o'ziga xos holatlari orqali ongning birligi".^[152]

Mantman bu birinchi tamoyil Advaita Vedanta-da, Brahman tushunchasi bilan birga, Atman seziladigan shaxsiy xususiyat bo'lib, Brahman esa sinonim va bir-birining o'rnini bosadigan cheksiz universaldir.^[153] Bu Advaitin uchun o'zgarmas, doimiy va abadiy mutlaqdir.^[154][155] Staneshvar Timalsina aynan shaxsning "ongi", "ongi" "o'zini o'zi ochib beradigan, o'z-o'zidan ravshan va o'z-o'zini anglaydigan"svaprakashata)".^[156] Mantman, deydi Eliot Deutsch, "ongning sof, farqlanmagan, oliy kuchi", bu fikrdan ko'proq, bu ongli va sub'ekt-ob'ektlar bo'linishi va vaqtinchaliklikdan ustun bo'lgan mavjudlik holatidir.^[157]

Advaita Vedannta falsafasi Otmanni o'z-o'zini anglaydigan, cheksiz va ikkilamchi anglash deb biladi.^[77] Bu har bir tirik mavjudot ichida bir-biriga o'xshash va umumbashariy abadiyatga o'xshash "ruh, ruh, o'zlik" (Otman) mavjudligini ta'kidlaydi. Braxman.^[78] Bu barcha mavjudotlarni birlashtiradigan, har bir mavjudotda ilohiy mavjud bo'lgan, butun borliq yagona Haqiqat bo'lgan va "Ttman" shaxsidan ajralib turadigan "ilohiy" mavjud bo'lmagan "birlik" tajribasi.^{[158][159][80]}

Atman Advaita Vedanta-da doimo o'zgarib turadigan tanasi, istaklari, hissiyotlari, egoi yoki dualistik aqli emas.^{[160][161][162]} Bu introspektiv, ich-ichidan o'z-o'zini anglaydigan "qarashda" (saksi).^[163] Advaitinlarga ko'ra, odamlar, o'zlari bilmagan holda va bexabarlikda o'zlarining "o'zliklarini" boshqalardagi mavjudlikdan farq qiladi, keyin turtki, qo'rquv, ishtiyoq, yovuzlik, bo'linish, chalkashlik, xavotir, ehtiros va o'ziga xoslik hissi.^{[164][165][166]}

Atman va Braxmanning o'ziga xosligi

Advaita Vedanta so'zlariga ko'ra, Atman Braxman bilan bir xil.^[167][168] Bu mahavakya "tat tvam asi"," siz shundaysiz. "U erda" umumiy til, ya'ni. ong, shaxsga va Braxmanga. "^[168] Advaita fikricha har bir jon cheksizdan farq qilmaydi.^[169] Shankaraning fikriga ko'ra, Atman va Braxman voqelikning empirik darajasida turlicha ko'rinadi, ammo bu tafovut faqatgina xayoldir va haqiqatning eng yuqori darajasida ular haqiqatan ham bir xil.^[170]

Mokshaga Otman va Braxmanning shaxsiyatini anglash, bu hayotda o'z tabiatini Braxman sifatida to'liq anglash orqali erishiladi.^[13] Buni Advaita olimlari, masalan, Shankara quyidagicha ta'kidlaydilar:

Men ism, shakl va harakatdan boshqa odamman.
Mening tabiatim doimo erkin!
Men O'zimman, eng shartsiz Brahman.
Men sof xabardorman, har doim dual bo'lmagan.

— Adi Shankara, Upadesasahasri 11.7, ^[13]

Haqiqat darajasi, haqiqatlar

Klassik Advaita Vedanta butun voqelikni va tajribali dunyodagi hamma narsani Brahman bilan bir xil deb tushuntiradi.^{[veb 1]} Advaitins uchun ko'plikda birlik mavjud va Yaratganning va yaratilgan olamning ikkilangan ierarxiyasi mavjud emas.^{[veb 1][171]} Advaita falsafasidagi barcha narsalar, barcha tajribalar, barcha materiyalar, ong va xabardorlik, bu bitta asosiy haqiqat Brahmanning mulki emas, balki tabiatidir.^{[veb 1]} Ushbu asos bilan Advaita maktabida ta'kidlanishicha, har qanday ontologik harakat o'zini o'zi bilishni nazarda tutishi kerak va bu harakat barcha empirik tajribalarni tushuntirish kerak, masalan, uxlash paytida tush ko'rilgan paytda va tirik mavjudotlarning ko'pligi. Bu Advaita o'zining uchta haqiqat nazariyasini keltirib,^[172] ikki haqiqat nazariyasi,^[173] va ushbu g'oyalarni xatolar nazariyasi bilan ishlab chiqish va birlashtirish orqali (anirvacaniya khyati).^{[174][veb 1]}

Shankara subtlyatsiyani ontologik mezon sifatida foydalanib, haqiqatning uchta darajasini taklif qiladi:^{[175][176][177]}

• Paramarthika (paramarta, mutlaq), metafizik jihatdan to'g'ri va ontologik jihatdan aniq bo'lgan haqiqat. Bu "mutlaqo haqiqiy bo'lgan va boshqa har ikkala haqiqat darajalari hal qilinishi mumkin bo'lgan" narsani boshdan kechirish holatidir. Bu voqelik eng yuqori darajadir, uni boshqasi sublatatsiya qila olmaydi (o'zlashtira olmaydi).^[175][178]
• Vyavaxarika (vyavaxara), yoki samvriti-saya,^[179] empirik yoki pragmatik haqiqatdan iborat. Vaqt o'tishi bilan u har doim o'zgarib turadi, shuning uchun ma'lum bir vaqt va kontekstda empirik ravishda to'g'ri keladi, lekin emas metafizik jihatdan to'g'ri. Bu "bizning tajriba dunyomiz, biz har kuni bedor bo'lganimizda ko'rib chiqadigan ajoyib dunyomiz". Bu ikkalasining darajasi jiva (tirik mavjudotlar yoki individual ruhlar) va Isvara haqiqat; bu erda moddiy dunyo ham haqiqatdir, ammo bu to'liq bo'lmagan haqiqat va sublatable.^[178][180]
• Pratibhasika (pratibhasika, ko'rinadigan haqiqat, real bo'lmagan), "yolg'iz tasavvurga asoslangan haqiqat". Bu aql o'z haqiqatini quradigan tajriba darajasidir. Taniqli misollari pratibhasika uyqusida tushida to'qilgan "sherning bo'kirishi" va zulmatda arqonni ilon kabi qabul qilish kabi xayoliy voqelikdir.^{[178][181][182]}

Advaita Vedanta empirik nuqtai nazardan juda ko'p farqlarga ega ekanligini tan oladi va tan oladi.^[183] Unda hamma narsa va har bir voqelik muttasil va nisbiy bo'lgan turli xil istiqbollarga ega ekanligi ta'kidlanadi. Bularning barchasi tegishli kontekstda haqiqiy va haqiqatdir, deydi Advaita, lekin faqat ularning o'ziga xos nuqtai nazari bo'yicha. Ushbu "mutlaq va nisbiy haqiqatlar" tushuntirishini Advaitins "ikki haqiqat" ta'limoti deb ataydi.^{[173][183][184]} Vedanta bo'yicha ixtisoslashgan hind dinlari professori Jon Grimes bu Advaita ta'limotini yorug'lik va zulmat misolida tushuntiradi.^[183] Quyosh nuqtai nazaridan u na ko'tariladi va na botadi, zulmat yo'q va "hamma yorug'lik". Er yuzidagi odam nuqtai nazaridan quyosh ko'tariladi va botadi, yorug'lik ham, qorong'ulik ham bor, "hamma yorug'lik" emas, yorug'lik va zulmatning nisbiy soyalari mavjud. Ularning ikkalasi ham o'z istiqbollarini hisobga olgan holda haqiqiy haqiqat va haqiqatdir. Shunga qaramay, ular bir-biriga ziddir. Bir nuqtai nazardan to'g'ri bo'lgan narsa, deydi Grimes, boshqasi emas. Advaita Vedanta uchun bu ikki haqiqat va ikkita haqiqat borligini anglatmaydi, lekin bu faqat bitta Haqiqat va bitta Haqiqat ikki xil nuqtai nazardan tushuntirilishi yoki boshdan kechirilishini anglatadi.^[183][185]

Ushbu nazariyalarni ishlab chiqishda Advaita Vedanta olimlari ba'zi fikrlardan ta'sirlanishdi Nyaya, Samxya va Yoga hind falsafasi maktablari.^[186][177] Ushbu nazariyalar Advaitinlar o'rtasida umumiy konsensusga ega bo'lmagan va Advaita an'analari asosida turli xil raqobatlashadigan ontologik talqinlar mavjud.^{[veb 1][187][188]}

Empirik haqiqat - illuziya va jaholat

Advaita Vedanta fikriga ko'ra, Braxman yagona haqiqatdir. Advaita Vedanta-da fenomenal dunyoning holati muhim savol bo'lib, turli xil echimlar taklif qilingan. Fenomenal olamni real deb qabul qilish bilan izohlanadi maya (doimo o'zgaruvchan haqiqat) va avidya ("savodsizlik"). Dan boshqa Braxman, qolgan hamma narsalar, shu jumladan koinot, moddiy narsalar va shaxslar doimo o'zgarib turadi va shuning uchun maya. Braxman Paramarthika Satyam, "Mutlaq haqiqat",^[137] va "haqiqiy O'zlik, sof ong, yagona Haqiqat (o'tirdi), chunki bu farq bilan o'chirilgan, jaholat belgisi va bu narsa sublatable emas ".^[76]

Maya (xayol)

Mayya doktrinasi Advaitadagi empirik voqelikni tushuntirish uchun ishlatiladi.^{[189][21-eslatma]} Jiva, inson aqli bilan shartlangan holda, sub'ektiv tabiatdagi tajribalarga duch keladi, Vedanta maktabini ta'kidlaydi, bu esa Mayani noto'g'ri tushunishga va uni yagona va yakuniy haqiqat sifatida talqin qilishga olib keladi. Advaitins ta'kidlashicha, idrok etilayotgan dunyo, shu jumladan odamlar va boshqa mavjudot, u ko'rinadigan narsa emas ".^[191] Bu yolg'on tuyg'usini namoyon qiladigan va davom ettiradigan Maya ikkilik yoki bo'linish ko'pligi.^[192] Empirik namoyon haqiqiy, ammo o'zgaruvchan, ammo u hech qachon o'zgarmas metafizik Haqiqatning asl mohiyatini buzadi. Advaita maktabi ozodlik bu o'zgarmaydigan haqiqat va haqiqatlarni - o'zlikni cheklanmagan amalga oshirish va anglash, deb tushunadi, chunki O'zidagi O'zi (Ruh) boshqasidagi O'zi bilan va hamma narsada O'zi (Braxman).^[193]

Advaita Vedannta falsafasida ikkita haqiqat mavjud: Vyavaharika (empirik haqiqat) va Paramartika (mutlaq, ma'naviy haqiqat).^[194] Maya - bu ongni chulg'ab oladigan empirik haqiqat. Maya haqiqiy va birlashgan O'zining ochilishiga to'sqinlik qilib, empirik dunyoga qullikni yaratishga qodir - Kosmik Ruh deb ham tanilgan Braxman. Maya haqidagi ushbu nazariya tushuntirildi va tushuntirildi Adi Shankara. Dvaita olimlari bilan raqobatdosh bo'lgan Shankaraning nazariyasi,^[195] va Shankara Braxman va Mayya o'rtasidagi munosabatlar nazariyasini taklif qilmaganligini ta'kidladi.^[196] Keyinchalik Advaita olimi Prakasatman bunga murojaat qilib, "Mayya va Braxman birgalikda butun koinotni tashkil qiladi, xuddi ikki xil to'qilgan iplar to'qima hosil qiladi. Mayya bu dunyoning namoyon bo'lishi, Mayani qo'llab-quvvatlovchi Braxman sababdir. dunyoning. "^[197]

Brahman - Advaita Vedanta-dagi yagona metafizik haqiqat, Maya epistemologik va empirik ma'noda haqiqatdir; ammo, Maya metafizik va ma'naviy haqiqat emas. Ruhiy haqiqat abadiy haqiqatdir, empirik haqiqat esa hozircha amal qiladi. Haqiqiy haqiqatni to'liq bilish ikkalasini ham o'z ichiga oladi Vyavaharika (empirik) va Paramartika (ma'naviy), Maya va Braxman. Advaitinsning ta'kidlashicha, ma'naviy ma'rifatning maqsadi - Braxmanni anglash, butun voqelikning birligi va birligini anglash.^{[194][198][79]}

Avidya (savodsizlik)

Jaholat tufayli (avidyā), Brahman moddiy dunyo va uning ob'ektlari (nama rupa vikara) sifatida qabul qilinadi. Shankaraning so'zlariga ko'ra, Braxman haqiqatda atributsiz va shaklsiz. Braxman, eng yuqori haqiqat va hamma (Haqiqat), aslida o'zgarmaydi; o'zgarishlarning ko'rinishini faqat bizning bexabarligimiz beradi. Shuningdek tufayli avidyā, haqiqiy o'ziga xoslik unutiladi va turli darajalarda namoyon bo'ladigan moddiy haqiqat yagona va haqiqiy haqiqat sifatida yanglishadi.

Avidya tushunchasi va uning Brahman bilan munosabati Advaita Vedanta fikrida hal qiluvchi falsafiy masalani vujudga keltiradi: avidya qanday qilib Brahmanda paydo bo'lishi mumkin, chunki Brahman sof ongdir?^[199] Sengaku Mayeda o'zining sharhida va tarjimasida yozadi Adi ShankaraUpadesasahasri:

Shubhasiz, Sankara izdoshlari uchun qoldirgan eng muhim muammo bu avidya muammosi. Agar kontseptsiya mantiqan tahlil qilinadigan bo'lsa, u Vedanta falsafasini dualizm yoki nigilizm tomon olib boradi va uning asosiy pozitsiyasini olib tashlaydi.^[200]

To Advaitins, human beings, in a state of unawareness and ignorance of this Universal Self, see their "I-ness" as different than the being in others, then act out of impulse, fears, cravings, malice, division, confusion, anxiety, passions, and a sense of distinctiveness.^[166][201]

Subsequent Advaitins gave somewhat various explanations, from which various Advaita schools arose.

Sabablilik

All schools of Vedānta subscribe to the theory of Satkariyavada,^{[veb 5]} bu ta'sir sababda oldindan mavjudligini anglatadi. But there are different views on the causal relationship and the nature of the empirical world from the perspective of metaphysical Brahman. The Braxma sutralari, the ancient Vedantins, most sub-schools of Vedānta,^{[202][veb 5]} as well as Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy,^{[veb 5]} qo'llab-quvvatlash Parinamavada, dunyoning haqiqiy o'zgarishi degan fikr (parinama) Brahman.^[202]

Scholars disagree on the whether Adi Shankara and his Advaita system explained causality through vivarta.^{[veb 5][202][203]} According to Andrew Nicholson, instead of parinama-vada, the competing causality theory is Vivartavada, which says "the world, is merely an unreal manifestation (vivarta) Brahman. Vivartavada states that although Brahman appears to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are unreal manifestation, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts". The advocates of this illusive, unreal transformation based causality theory, states Nicholson, have been the Advaitins, the followers of Shankara.^[202] "Although the world can be described as conventionally real", adds Nicholson, "the Advaitins claim that all of Brahman’s effects must ultimately be acknowledged as unreal before the individual self can be liberated".^{[veb 5]}

However, other scholars such as Hajime Nakamura and Paul Hacker disagree. Hacker and others state that Adi Shankara did not advocate Vivartavada, and his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion". According to these scholars, it was the 13th century scholar Prakasatman who gave a definition to Vivarta, and it is Prakasatman's theory that is sometimes misunderstood as Adi Shankara's position.^{[203][note 22]} Andrew Nicholson concurs with Hacker and other scholars, adding that the vivarta-vada isn't Shankara's theory, that Shankara's ideas appear closer to parinama-vada, va vivarta explanation likely emerged gradually in Advaita subschool later.^{[veb 5]}

According to Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta states that from "the standpoint of Brahman-experience and Brahman itself, there is no creation" in the absolute sense, all empirically observed creation is relative and mere transformation of one state into another, all states are provisional and a cause-effect driven modification.^[206]

Three states of consciousness and Turiya

Advaita posits three states of consciousness, namely waking (jagrat), dreaming (svapna), deep sleep (suṣupti), which are empirically experienced by human beings,^[207][208] and correspond to the Uch tanadagi ta'limot:^[209]

1. Birinchi holat - bu uyg'onish holatidir, unda biz kundalik hayotimizdan xabardor bo'lamiz.^[210] Bu yalpi tanadir.
2. Ikkinchi holat - bu orzu qiladigan aql. Bu nozik tanasi.^[210]
3. Uchinchi holat - chuqur uyqu holati. Bu causal body.^[210]

Advaita also posits the fourth state of Turiya, which some describe as pure consciousness, the background that underlies and transcends these three common states of consciousness.^{[web 6][web 7]} Turiya is the state of liberation, where states Advaita school, one experiences the infinite (ananta) va boshqacha (advaita / abheda), that is free from the dualistic experience, the state in which ajativada, kelib chiqishi bo'lmaganligi ushlandi.^[211] According to Candradhara Sarma, Turiya state is where the foundational Self is realized, it is measureless, neither cause nor effect, all prevading, without suffering, blissful, changeless, self-luminous, real, immanent in all things and transcendent.^[212] Those who have experienced the Turiya stage of self-consciousness have reached the pure awareness of their own non-dual Self as one with everyone and everything, for them the knowledge, the knower, the known becomes one, they are the Jivanmukta.^{[213][214][215]}

Advaita traces the foundation of this ontological theory in more ancient Sanskrit texts.^[216] Masalan, 8.7 dan 8.12 gacha bo'lgan boblar Chandogya Upanishad "to'rtta ong holatini" uyg'oq, tushga to'lgan uyqu, chuqur uyqu va chuqur uyqudan tashqari deb muhokama qiling.^[216][217] One of the earliest mentions of Turiya, in the Hindu scriptures, occurs in verse 5.14.3 of the Brixadaranyaka Upanishad.^[218] The idea is also discussed in other early Upanishads.^[219]

Epistemologiya

The ancient and medieval texts of Advaita Vedānta and other schools of Hindu philosophy discuss Pramana (epistemologiya). The theory of Pramana discusses questions like how correct knowledge can be acquired; how one knows, how one doesn't; and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.^[220][221] Advaita Vedānta,^[222] accepts the following six kinds of pramāṇas:^[223][224]

1. Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्षाय) – perception
2. Anumāṇa (अनुमान) – inference
3. Upamāṇa (उपमान) – comparison, analogy
4. Arthapatti (अर्थापत्ति) – postulation, derivation from circumstances^[221][225]
5. Anupalabdi (अनुपलब्धि) – non-perception, negative/cognitive proof^[226]
6. Daabda (शब्द) – relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts^[221][226]

Pratyakṣa (idrok)

Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्षाय), perception, is of two types: external – that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, and internal – perception of inner sense, the mind.^[227] Advaita postulates four pre-requisites for correct perception: 1) Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied), 2) Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through eshitish, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), 3) Avyabhicara (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and 4) Vyavasayatmaka (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).^[228] The internal perception concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).^[229]

Anumāṇa (xulosa)

Anumāṇa (अनुमान), inference, is defined as applying reason to reach a new conclusion about truth from one or more observations and previous understanding of truths.^[230] Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana. This epistemological method for gaining knowledge consists of three parts: 1) Pratijna (hypothesis), 2) Hetu (a reason), and 3) drshtanta (examples).^[231] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts: 1) Sadxya (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and 2) Paksha (the object on which the Sadxya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if Sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if Vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies further demand Vyapti – the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha va vipaksha.^[231][232] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).^[233]

Upamāṇa (comparison, analogy)

Upamāṇa (उपमान), comparison, analogy.^[221][225] Some Hindu schools consider it as a proper means of knowledge.^[234] Upamana, states Lochtefeld,^[235] may be explained with the example of a traveler who has never visited lands or islands with endemic population of wildlife. He or she is told, by someone who has been there, that in those lands you see an animal that sort of looks like a cow, grazes like cow but is different from a cow in such and such way. Such use of analogy and comparison is, state the Indian epistemologists, a valid means of conditional knowledge, as it helps the traveller identify the new animal later.^[235] The subject of comparison is formally called upameyam, the object of comparison is called upamanam, while the attribute(s) are identified as samanya.^[236]

Arthapatti (postulation)

Arthapatti (अर्थापत्ति), postulation, derivation from circumstances.^[221][225] In contemporary logic, this pramana is similar to circumstantial xulosa.^[237] As example, if a person left in a boat on river earlier, and the time is now past the expected time of arrival, then the circumstances support the truth postulate that the person has arrived. Many Indian scholars considered this Pramana as invalid or at best weak, because the boat may have gotten delayed or diverted.^[238] However, in cases such as deriving the time of a future sunrise or sunset, this method was asserted by the proponents to be reliable.

Anupalabdi (idrok etmaslik, salbiy / kognitiv dalil)

Anupalabdi (अनुपलब्धि), non-perception, negative/cognitive proof.^[226] Anupalabdhi pramana suggests that knowing a negative, such as "there is no jug in this room" is a form of valid knowledge. If something can be observed or inferred or proven as non-existent or impossible, then one knows more than what one did without such means.^[239] In Advaita school of Hindu philosophy, a valid conclusion is either sadrupa (positive) or asadrupa (negative) relation – both correct and valuable. Boshqalar singari pramana, Indian scholars refined Anupalabdi to four types: non-perception of the cause, non-perception of the effect, non-perception of object, and non-perception of contradiction. Only two schools of Hinduism accepted and developed the concept "non-perception" as a pramana. Advaita considers this method as valid and useful when the other five pramanlar fail in one's pursuit of knowledge and truth.^[224][240] A variation of Anupaladbi, called Abhava (अभाव) has also been posited as an epistemic method. It means non-existence. Some scholars consider Anupalabdi to be same as Abxava,^[221] while others consider Anupalabdi va Abxava as different.^[240][241] Abhava-pramana has been discussed in Advaita in the context of Padarta (पदार्थ, referent of a term). A Padartha is defined as that which is simultaneously Astitva (existent), Jneyatva (knowable) and Abhidheyatva (nameable).^[242] Abxava was further refined in four types, by the schools of Hinduism that accepted it as a useful method of epistemology: dhvamsa (termination of what existed), atyanta-abhava (impossibility, absolute non-existence, contradiction), anyonya-abhava (mutual negation, reciprocal absence) and pragavasa (prior, antecedent non-existence).^{[224][242][243]}

Daabda (relying on testimony)

Daabda (शब्द), relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.^[221][226] Hiriyanna explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.^[244] He must rely on others, his parent, family, friends, teachers, ancestors and kindred members of society to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written, but through Sabda (words).^[244] The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the Sabda of reliable sources.^[226][244] The disagreement between Advaita and other schools of Hinduism has been on how to establish reliability.^[245]

Axloq qoidalari

Some claim, states Deutsch, "that Advaita turns its back on all theoretical and practical considerations of morality and, if not unethical, is at least 'a-ethical' in character".^[246] However, adds Deutsch, ethics qiladi have a firm place in this philosophy. Its ideology is permeated with ethics and value questions enter into every metaphysical and epistemological analysis, and it considers "an independent, separate treatment of ethics are unnecessary".^[246][247] According to Advaita Vedānta, states Deutsch, there cannot be "any absolute moral laws, principles or duties", instead in its axiological view Atman is "beyond good and evil", and all values result from self-knowledge of the reality of "distinctionless Oneness" of one's real self, every other being and all manifestations of Brahman.^[248] Advaitin ethics includes lack of craving, lack of dual distinctions between one's own soul and another being's, good and just Karma.^[249]

The values and ethics in Advaita Vedānta emanate from what it views as inherent in the state of liberating self-knowledge. This state, according to Rambachan, includes and leads to the understanding that "the self is the self of all, the knower of self sees the self in all beings and all beings in the self."^[80] Such knowledge and understanding of the indivisibility of one's and other's Atman, Advaitins believe leads to "a deeper identity and affinity with all". It does not alienate or separate an Advaitin from his or her community, rather awakens "the truth of life's unity and interrelatedness".^[80] These ideas are exemplified in the Isha Upanishad - a sruti for Advaita, as follows:

One who sees all beings in the self alone, and the self of all beings,
feels no hatred by virtue of that understanding.
For the seer of oneness, who knows all beings to be the self,
where is delusion and sorrow?

— Isha Upanishad 6–7, Translated by A Rambachan^[250]

Adi Shankara, a leading proponent of Advaita, in verse 1.25 to 1.26 of his Upadeśasāhasrī, asserts that the Self-knowledge is understood and realized when one's mind is purified by the observation of Yamalar (ethical precepts) such as Aximsa (non-violence, abstinence from injuring others in body, mind and thoughts), Satya (truth, abstinence from falsehood), Asteya (abstinence from theft), Aparigraha (abstinence from possessiveness and craving) and a simple life of meditation and reflection.^[251] Rituals and rites can help focus and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge,^[252] however, Shankara discourages ritual worship and oblations to Deva (God), because that assumes the Self within is different than Brahman. The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".^[253]

Elsewhere, in verses 1.26–1.28, the Advaita text Upadesasahasri states the ethical premise of equality of all beings. Har qanday Bheda (discrimination), states Shankara, based on class or caste or parentage is a mark of inner error and lack of liberating knowledge.^[254] This text states that the fully liberated person understands and practices the ethics of non-difference.^[254]

One, who is eager to realize this highest truth spoken of in the Sruti, should rise above the fivefold form of desire: for a son, for wealth, for this world and the next, and are the outcome of a false reference to the Self of Varna (castes, colors, classes) and orders of life. These references are contradictory to right knowledge, and reasons are given by the Srutis regarding the prohibition of the acceptance of difference. For when the knowledge that the one non-dual Atman (Self) is beyond phenomenal existence is generated by the scriptures and reasoning, there cannot exist a knowledge side by side that is contradictory or contrary to it.

— Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.44, ^[255][256]

Matnlar

The Upanishadlar, Bhagavad Gitā va Braxma sutralari are the central texts of the Advaita Vedānta tradition, providing doctrines about the identity of Atman va Braxman and their changeless nature.^[257][258]

Adi Shankara gave a nondualist interpretation of these texts in his commentaries. Adi Shankara"s Bxasya (commentaries) have become central texts in the Advaita Vedānta philosophy, but are one among many ancient and medieval manuscripts available or accepted in this tradition.^[20] The subsequent Advaita tradition has further elaborated on these sruti and commentaries. Adi Shankara is also credited for the famous text Nirvana Shatakam.

Prastanatrayi

The Vedanta tradition provides exegeses of the Upanishadlar, Braxma sutralari, va Bhagavadgita, collectively called the Prastanatrayi, so'zma-so'z, uchta manba.^{[17][257][258]}

1. The Upanishadlar,^{[note 23]} yoki Utruti prasthana; ko'rib chiqildi Utruti (Vedic scriptures) foundation of Vedanta.^{[note 24][261][262][263]} Most scholars, states Eliot Deutsch, are convinced that the Śruti in general, and the Upanishads in particular, express "a very rich diversity" of ideas, with the early Upanishadlar kabi Brixadaranyaka Upanishad va Chandogya Upanishad being more readily amenable to Advaita Vedanta school's interpretation than the middle or later Upanishadlar.^[264][265] In addition to the oldest Upanishadlar, states Williams, the Sannyasa Upanishadlari group composed in pre-Shankara times "express a decidedly Advaita outlook".^[266]
2. The Braxma sutralari, yoki Nyaya prastana / Yukti prasthana; considered the reason-based foundation of Vedanta. The Braxma sutralari ta'limotlarini sintez qilishga urindi Upanishadlar. The diversity in the teachings of the Upanishadlar ushbu ta'limotlarni tizimlashtirishni taqozo etdi. The only extant version of this synthesis is the Braxma sutralari ning Badarayana. Kabi Upanishadlar, Braxma sutralari is also an aphoristic text, and can be interpreted as a non-theistic Advaita Vedanta text or as a theistic Dvaita Vedānta matn.Bu, deydi Stiven Fillips, turli maktab o'quvchilari tomonidan turli xil talqin qilinishiga olib keldi Vedanta.^[267] The Braxmasutra Advaita maktabi tomonidan Nyaya Prastana (fikr yuritish uchun kanonik asos).^[268]
3. The Bhagavad Gita, yoki Smriti prasthana; ko'rib chiqildi Smriti (eslab qolgan an'analar) ning asosi Vedanta.^[268] Tomonidan keng o'rganilgan Advaita tomonidan yozilgan sharh, shu jumladan olimlar Adi Shankara.^[269][270]

Matn vakolati

Kimligi Atman va Braxmanva ularning o'zgarmas, abadiy tabiati,^[271] Advaita Vedanta-dagi asosiy ta'limotlardir. Maktab Vedalardagi bilim talablarini Vedalarning emas, balki uning muhim qismi deb hisoblaydi karma-kanda (marosim buyruqlari).^[257] Atman va Brahmanning tabiati bilan bir xil bo'lishiga oid bilimlarning da'volari UpanishadlarAdvaita Vedanta buni "xatosiz ochilgan haqiqat" deb hisoblaydi.^[257] Shunga qaramay, Koller, Advaita Vedantinsning ta'kidlashicha, vahiyga to'liq ishonishmagan, aksincha ularning aqidalari va tajribalaridan foydalangan holda o'zlarining ta'limotlarini sinchkovlik bilan o'rganib chiqishgan va bu ularni raqobatdosh nazariyalarni o'rganishga va tanqid qilishga undagan.^[257]

Advaita Vedānta, hind falsafasining barcha pravoslav maktablari singari, qabul qiladi epistemik deb taxmin qilish Utruti (Vedik adabiyoti) ishonchli bilim manbai.^{[272][273][274]} Utruti tarkibiga to'rtta Veda, shu jumladan uning to'rtta qatlamli matnlari - Samhitalar, Braxmanalar, Aranyakalar va dastlabki Upanishadlar kiradi.^[275] Ulardan Advana maktabidagi Upanishadlar eng ko'p murojaat qilingan matnlardir.

Vedik adabiyotini har xil talqin qilish imkoniyati, deydi Arvind Sharma, qadimgi hind olimlari tomonidan tan olingan.^[276][270] The Braxmasutra (miloddan avvalgi 1-ming yillikda tuzilgan Vedanta Sutra deb ham ataladi) 1.1.4-oyatda buni qabul qildi va Vanish matnlaridagi g'oyalar uyg'unlashib, birlashtirib, upanisadik ta'limotni qismli cherrypicked asosida tushunmaslik zarurligini ta'kidladi. idrok, xulosa chiqarish va qolish kabi boshqa bilim vositalari bilan pramanlar.^[276][268] Ushbu mavzu Advaita maktabida muhim o'rin tutadi Braxmasutra Advaita uchun umumiy ma'lumot va konsolidatsiyalangan matn vakolatxonasi sifatida.^[276][277]

Bhagavad Gita, xuddi shunga o'xshash qismlarda monist Advaita matni, boshqa qismlarda esa theistic Dvaita matni deb talqin qilinishi mumkin. Bu Advaita olimlari tomonidan keng o'rganilgan, shu jumladan Adi Shankaraning sharhi.^[278][270]

Advaita Vedanta tarixi

Gaudapada, Advaita urf-odatlarida eng muhim faylasuflardan biri

Advaita Vedanta Adi Shankaradan oldin mavjud bo'lgan, ammo unda uning eng ta'sirchan asoschisi topilgan.^[279]

Shankaradan oldingi Advaita Vedanta

Vedanta maktabining tarkibi oldin Braxma sutralari (Mil. 400-450)^[280]), 1950 yilda Nakamura yozgan, deyarli hech narsa ma'lum emas.^[280] 20-asrning birinchi yarmida Nakamura kabi olimlarga ma'lum bo'lgan Shankara davridan oldingi ikki Advaita yozuvlari Vakyapadiya, tomonidan yozilgan Bxartari (V asrning ikkinchi yarmi)^[281]), va Mandikya-karika tomonidan yozilgan Gaudapada (Milodiy 7-asr).^[280]

1950 yildan keyingi stipendiya shuni ko'rsatadiki, deyarli barchasi Sannyasa Upanishadlarikichik Upanishadlarga tegishli bo'lib, yirik Upanishadlardan, ya'ni milodning birinchi asrlaridan keyinroq bo'lgan,^[25-eslatma] va ba'zilari mazhabparastlik xususiyatiga ega,^[286] kuchli Advaita Vedānta dunyoqarashiga ega.^{[287][288][289]} Ushbu qadimiy matnlardagi Advaita Vedanta qarashlari davlatlar bo'lishi mumkin Patrik Olivelle, chunki bu davrdagi yirik hindu monastirlari (milodiy VI asr o'rtalaridan boshlangan o'rta asrlar davri) Advaita Vedanta an'analariga tegishli bo'lib, faqat Advaita qarashlarini saqlab qolgan va boshqa matnlarni Advaita matnlariga qayta tiklagan.^[287]

Eng qadimgi Vedanta - Upanishadlar va Braxma sutralari

Upanishadlar Vedanta sharhini beradigan asosiy matnlarni tashkil qiladi.^[290] Upanishadlarda "ta'limotlarni aniqlaydigan va dalillarni keltiradigan qat'iy falsafiy so'rov" mavjud emas.^{[291][26-eslatma]} Ushbu falsafiy so'rovni darsanas, turli xil falsafiy maktablar.^{[293][27-eslatma]}

Badarayananing Braxma Sutrasidir

Badarayananing Braxma sutralari ham Vedanta Sutra,^[295] milodiy 400-450 yillarda hozirgi shaklida tuzilgan,^[296] lekin "ning katta qismi Sutra bundan ancha oldin mavjud bo'lgan bo'lishi kerak ".^[296] Badarayana hayotining sanasi miloddan avvalgi 200 va milodiy 200 yillarda farq qiladi.^[297]

Braxma Sutra - Upanishadalar ta'limotini tanqidiy o'rganish, ehtimol "Bhedabheda Vedantika nuqtai nazaridan yozilgan".^{[veb 5]} Bu Vedantik tizimlarning buyuk o'qituvchilari uchun qo'llanma edi va mavjud.^[295] Badarayyana Upanishadalar ta'limotini tizimlashtirgan birinchi odam emas edi.^[298] U o'zidan oldingi etti Vedantik o'qituvchiga murojaat qiladi:^[298]

Badarayana boshqalarning fikrlarini keltirgan uslubidan ko'rinib turibdiki, Upanishadlarning ta'limoti undan oldin bir necha kishi tomonidan tahlil qilingan va talqin qilingan bo'lishi kerak va ularni to'rt bobda joylashtirilgan 555 sutrada tizimlashtirishi oxirgi bo'lishi kerak. urinish, ehtimol eng yaxshisi.^[298]

Braxma Sutras va Shankara o'rtasida

Nakamuraning so'zlariga ko'ra, "bu davrda juda ko'p sonli boshqa yozuvlar paydo bo'lishi kerak edi, ammo afsuski, ularning barchasi tarqoq yoki yo'qolgan va bugun bizgacha etib kelmagan".^[280] O'zining sharhlarida Shankara o'zining "Sampradaya" sining 99 xil o'tmishini eslatib o'tadi.^[299] Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara haqidagi sharhining boshida Brahmavidya Sampradaya o'qituvchilariga salom beradi.^{[veb 8]} Shankaradan oldingi ta'limotlar va so'zlarni keyingi maktablarning ishlarida kuzatish mumkin, bu dastlabki Vedanta falsafasining rivojlanishi to'g'risida tushuncha beradi.^[280]

Vedanta shahridagi turli muhim mutafakkirlarning nomlari keltirilgan Siddxitraya Yamunakariya (1050-yil) tomonidan Vedarthasamgraha Ramānuja (taxminan 1050–1157) va Yatīndramatadīpikā īrīnivāsa-dasa tomonidan.^[280] Birgalikda,^[280] kamida o'n to'rt mutafakkir Braxman Sutrasining tarkibi va Shankaraning hayoti orasida bo'lganligi ma'lum.^{[280][28-eslatma]}

Garchi Shankara ko'pincha Advaita Vedanta maktabining asoschisi deb hisoblansa-da, Nakamuraning fikriga ko'ra, ushbu dastlabki Vedantinlar va Shankaraning fikrlari ma'lum bo'lgan ta'limotlarni taqqoslash Shankara fikrining aksariyat xususiyatlarini "Chankara'dan oldin kimdir himoya qilgan".^[300] Shankara "ni sintez qilgan kishi edi Advaita-vada ilgari undan oldin mavjud bo'lgan ".^[300] Ushbu sintezda u qadimgi ta'limni yoshartiruvchi va himoya qilgan.^[301] U tengsiz sharhlovchi edi,^[301] Advaita Vedanta o'zining sa'y-harakatlari va hissalari tufayli hind falsafasida ustun mavqeni egalladi.^[301]

Gaudapada va Māṇḍukya Kārikā

Gaudapada (VI asr)^[302] o'qituvchisi edi Govinda Bhagavatpada va Shankaraning bobosi. Gaudapada tushunchalaridan foydalanadi Ajativada va Mayya^[303] "yakuniy haqiqat darajasidan olam kosmik illyuziya ekanligini" aniqlash^[304] va "bizning uyg'onish tajribamizning barchasi xayoliy va bema'ni tush bilan bir xil bo'lishini taklif qiladi."^[305] Farqli o'laroq, Adi Shankara uyg'onish tajribasi va orzular o'rtasidagi farqni talab qiladi.^[305]

Mandukya Karika

Gaudapada yozgan yoki tuzgan^[306] The Māṇḍukya Kārikā, deb ham tanilgan Gauḍapada Kārikā yoki Amagama Śāstra.^[307] The Māṇḍukya Kārikā oyat shaklida sharhdir Mandukya Upanishad, eng qisqa Upanishadlar atigi 13 nasriy jumladan iborat. Advaita Vedanta bilan bog'liq qadimiy adabiyotlardan eng qadimgi to'liq matn bu Māṇḍukya Kārikā.^[308] Xuddi shu turdagi ta'limotlarga ega bo'lgan va qadimgi eskirgan ko'plab boshqa matnlar Māṇḍukya Kārikā mavjud edi va bu shubhasizdir, chunki Xajime Nakamuraga ko'ra boshqa olimlar va ularning qarashlari Gaudapada, Shankara va Anandagiri tomonidan keltirilgan.^[309] Gaudapada, ayniqsa, ishongan Mandukya Upanishad, shu qatorda; shu bilan birga Brixadaranyaka va Chandogya Upanishadlari.^[308]

The Mandukya Upanishad a deb hisoblanadi Utruti Adi Shankara davridan oldin, ammo bu juda muhim deb hisoblanmagan.^[307] Shankaradan keyingi davrda uning qiymati ancha muhimlashdi va Upanishad falsafasining mohiyatini ifoda etuvchi sifatida qabul qilindi. Butun Karika ushbu keyingi davrda Advaita maktabi uchun asosiy matnga aylandi.^{[310][29-eslatma]}

Shri Gaudapadacharya matematikasi

Milodiy 740 yil atrofida Gaudapada Shri Gaudapadacharya matematikasiga asos solgan^[30-eslatma], shuningdek, nomi bilan tanilgan Kavaḷē maṭha. U joylashgan Kavale, Ponda, Goa,^{[veb 9]} va eng qadimgi matha ning Janubiy hind Sarasvat braxmanlari.^{[313][veb 10]}

Adi Shankara

Adi Shankara (788–820), shuningdek ma'lum Haṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya va Ādi Śaṅkarācārya, Vedanta rivojlanishidagi burilish nuqtasini anglatadi.^[315] Buddaviylikning Vedanta ta'siri kuchayib, Gaudapada asarlarida yakun topgandan so'ng, Adi Shankara bu asarlarida buddaviy unsurlarga Vedantik xarakter berdi,^[315] Advaita ta'limotini sintez qilish va yoshartirish.^[301] Qadimgi hind matnlaridagi g'oyalardan foydalangan holda, Shankara Advaita uchun asos yaratdi Vedanta milodiy 8-asrda islohotlar BadarayanaVedanta an'anasi.^[316] Uning tematik yo'nalishi bundan tashqari kengaytirilgan metafizika va soteriologiyava u bunga qattiq urg'u berdi Pramanlar, anavi epistemologiya yoki "bilim olish degani, ishonchli bilim olish imkoniyatini beradigan fikrlash usullari".^{[iqtibos kerak]} Masalan, Rambachan Shankara epistemologiyasining bir jihati bo'yicha keng tarqalgan fikrni quyidagicha tanqid qilishdan oldin umumlashtiradi:

Ushbu [keng tarqalgan zamonaviy] tadqiqotlarga ko'ra, Shankara faqat so'zlarni o'rganish orqali olingan bilimlarga vaqtinchalik kuch beradi. Utruti (Vedas) va ikkinchisini noyob manba sifatida ko'rmadi (pramana) ning Brahmajnana. Arutining tasdiqlari, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri tajriba orqali olingan bilimlar bilan tasdiqlanishi va tasdiqlanishi kerak (anubhava) va Śruti vakolati faqat ikkinchi darajali.^[278]

Sengaku Mayeda, Shankarani qo'shib, bilim olish jarayonida xolislik zarurligini saqlab qoldi (keng tarqalgan) va ko'rib chiqilgan sub'ektiv fikrlar (purushatantra) va utruti tilidagi buyruqlar (kodanatantra) ikkilamchi sifatida.^[317] Mayeda Shankaraning epistemologiyani ta'kidlaydigan aniq bayonotlarini keltiradi (pramana-janya) Upadesasahasri-ning 1.18.133 qismida va Brahmasutra-bhasya-ning 1.1.4 qismida.^[317][318]

Adi Shankara veda adabiyotidagi kontekstdan tashqarida biron bir ibora yoki oyatni cherrypick qilmaslikdan ogohlantirdi va Anvaya Har qanday risolaning (mavzusi yoki mazmuni) faqat agar u qatnashsa to'g'ri tushuniladi Samanvayat Tatparya Linga, bu ko'rib chiqilayotgan matnning oltita xususiyati:

1. Umumiy Upakrama (kirish bayonoti) va Upasamxara (xulosalar)
2. Abxyasa (xabar takrorlandi)
3. Apurvata (noyob taklif yoki yangilik)
4. Phala (meva yoki natija olingan)
5. Arthavada (ma'no tushuntirildi, maqtalgan nuqta)
6. Yukti (tasdiqlanadigan mulohaza).^[319][320]

Ushbu metodologiya nazariy asarlarida ildiz otgan bo'lsa-da Nyaya Hinduizm maktabi Shankara uni o'ziga xos eksgetik uslubi bilan birlashtirdi va qo'lladi Anvaya-VyatirekaTo'g'ri tushunish uchun "faqat barcha xususiyatlarga mos keladigan ma'nolarni qabul qilish" va "hech qanday mos kelmaydigan ma'nolarni istisno qilish" kerakligini ta'kidlaydi.^[321][322]

Xaker va Fillipsning ta'kidlashicha, fikr yuritish qoidalari va epistemik qadamlarga ierarxik urg'u berish Shankaraning Braxma-sutradagi "shubhasiz taklifi", uning sherigi va shogirdi Padmapadaning asarlarida gullab-yashnagan tushuncha.^[323] Merrel-Vulffning ta'kidlashicha, Shankara Vedalar va Upanishadlarni bilim manbai sifatida qabul qiladi, chunki u o'zining falsafiy tezislarini ishlab chiqadi, ammo u hech qachon o'z ishini qadimgi matnlar bilan bog'lamaydi, aksincha har bir tezisni ishora qiladi. pranamalar (epistemologiya), aql va tajriba.^[324][325]

Tarixiy kontekst

Shankara "kech klassik hinduizm" deb nomlangan davrda yashagan,^[326] 650 dan 1100 gacha davom etgan Idoralar.^[326] Bu davr keyingi siyosiy beqarorlik davri edi Gupta sulolasi va 7-shoh Xarsha asr Idoralar.^[327] Buddizm, jaynizm va hinduizm doirasidagi turli urf-odatlar g'oyalari a'zolari uchun raqobatlashayotgan paytda bu ijtimoiy va madaniy o'zgarishlar davri edi.^[328][329] Buddizm, xususan, milodiy 1-ming yillikning 700 yilligida Hindistonning ma'naviy an'analariga ta'sir ko'rsatdi.^[327][330] Shankara va uning zamondoshlari buddizm va qadimgi veda an'analarini tushunishda katta hissa qo'shdilar; ular keyinchalik mavjud bo'lgan g'oyalarni o'zgartirdilar, xususan, Vedanta an'anasini hinduizmni isloh qildilar va uni Hindistonning ming yildan ziyod eng muhim an'analariga aylantirdilar.^[327]

Yozuvlar

Adi Shankara o'zining muntazam sharhlari va sharhlari bilan mashhur (Bhasyas) qadimgi hind matnlarida. Shankaraning sharhning eng yaxshi asari - bu Braxmasutrabhasya (so'zma-so'z, sharh Braxma Sutra), Vedanta hinduizm maktabining asosiy matni.^[331] Uning o'nga sharhlari Muxya (asosiy) Upanishadlar ham olimlar tomonidan haqiqiy deb hisoblanadi.^[331][332] Shankaraning boshqa haqiqiy asarlariga Bhagavad Gitoning sharhlari (uning bir qismi) kiradi Prasthana Trayi Bhasya).^[278]

Shankaraning Vivarana (uchinchi darajali eslatmalar) Vedavyasaning sharhiga Yogasutralar shuningdek, Apastamba Dharma-sitrasidagilar (Adhyatama-patala-bhasya) olimlar tomonidan Adi Shankaraning haqiqiy asarlari sifatida qabul qilingan.^[333][334] Orasida Stotra (she'riy asarlar), Daksinamurti Stotra, Bhajagovinda Stotra, Sivanandalaxari, Carpata-panjarika, Visnu-satpadi, Harimide, Dasa-shloki va Krishna-staka haqiqiy bo'lishi mumkin.^[333][335] Shuningdek, u mualliflik qildi Upadesasahasri, uning eng muhim asl falsafiy asari.^[316][334] Boshqa asl nusxada Prakaranalar (Asarlar, monografiyalar, risola), 76 ta asar Adi Shankaraga tegishli. Zamonaviy davr hindistonlik olimlar Belvalkar va Upadxayya o'z navbatida beshta va o'ttiz to'qqizta asarlarini haqiqiy deb qabul qilishdi.^[336]

Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya va Shveshvatara Upanishadlar haqidagi bir nechta sharhlar Adi Shankaraga tegishli, ammo ularning haqiqiyligi juda shubhali.^[332][337] Xuddi shunday, Shankaraga tegishli bo'lgan bir necha erta va undan keyingi Upanishadlarning sharhlari ham olimlar tomonidan rad etilgan^[338] uning asarlari kabi va ehtimol keyingi Advaita Vedanta olimlarining asarlari; Bularga Kaushitaki Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad va Gopalatapaniya Upanishad kiradi.^[337]

Shankaraning muallifi bo'lgan haqiqiyligi Vivekacūḍāmaṇi^[339] so'roq qilingan va "zamonaviy olimlar Shankaraning asari sifatida uning haqiqiyligini rad etishga moyildirlar".^[340] Shankaraning muallifligi Mandukya Upanishad Bxasya va uning Gaudapadaning qo'shimcha sharhlari Māṇḍukya Kārikā Nakamura tomonidan bahslashdi.^[341] Biroq, boshqa olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, Mandukya haqidagi sharh, bu aslida Madukya-Karikas tomonidan berilgan sharhdir. Gaudapada, haqiqiy bo'lishi mumkin.^[333][337]

Shankaraning ta'siri

Advaita Vedanta an'analarida Shankaraning mavqei beqiyos. U Vedalarni o'rganishni tiklashga yordam berish uchun butun Hindiston bo'ylab sayohat qildi.^[342] Uning ta'limoti va an'ana asosini tashkil etadi Smartizm va ta'sir ko'rsatdi Sant Mat nasablar.^[343] U tanishtirdi Pankayatana shakli ibodat qilish, bir vaqtning o'zida beshta xudoga - Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva va Deviga sig'inish. Shankara barcha xudolar xudolarning xudolarning xilma-xil shakllari ekanligini tushuntirdi Braxman, ko'rinmas Oliy mavjudot.^[344]

Benedikt Eshli Adi Shankarani hinduizmda bir-biridan farq qiladigan ikki xil falsafiy ta'limotni birlashtirgani uchun, ya'ni Atman va Braxman.^[345] Isaevaning ta'kidlashicha, Shankaraning ta'siri hinduizmni isloh qilish, monastirlarni tashkil etish, shogirdlarni tarbiyalash, muxoliflar bilan bahslashish va falsafiy faoliyat bilan shug'ullangan, hind urf-odatlari nuqtai nazaridan "barcha mavjudotlar birligi haqidagi pravoslav g'oyani" qayta tiklashga yordam bergan va Vedanta fikri.^[346]

Ba'zi olimlar Shankaraning Hindistondagi dastlabki ta'siriga shubha bilan qarashadi.^[347] King va Roodurmunning so'zlariga ko'ra, X asrga qadar Shankara o'zining keksa zamondoshi soyasida qolgan Mandana-Misra, Advaitaning asosiy vakili deb hisoblangan.^[348][349] Boshqa olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, ushbu davrdagi tarixiy yozuvlar aniq emas va Shankaraning turli zamondoshlari va shogirdlari to'g'risida kam ishonchli ma'lumotlar ma'lum.^[350]

Bir nechta olimlarning ta'kidlashicha, Shankaraning tarixiy shuhrati va madaniy ta'siri asrlar o'tib, ayniqsa musulmonlarning bosqini va Hindistonni vayron qilish davrida o'sgan.^[347][351] Shankaraning ko'plab biografiyalari 14-asrda va undan keyin yaratilgan va nashr etilgan, masalan, keng tarqalgan Vidyaranyaning Śankara-vijaya. VidyaranyaMadhava nomi bilan ham tanilgan, u 1380-1386 yillarda Śringeri adaarada Pthamning 12-Jagadgurusi bo'lgan,^[352] hindularni qayta yaratishga ilhom berdi Vijayanagara imperiyasi Islomning vayronagarchiliklariga javoban Janubiy Hindiston Dehli Sultonligi.^[351][353] U va uning akalari Pol Xaker va boshqa olimlarni taklif qilishadi,^[347][351] Śankara haqida yozgan, shuningdek Vedalar va Dharma haqidagi Advaitikning keng sharhlari. Vidyaranya Vijayanagara imperiyasida vazir bo'lgan va qirolning qo'llab-quvvatlashidan bahramand bo'lgan,^[353] va uning homiyligi va uslubiy sa'y-harakatlari Shankarani qadriyatlarning yorqin ramzi sifatida yaratishga, Shankaraning Vedanta falsafalarining tarixiy va madaniy ta'sirini tarqatishga va monastirlarni tashkil etishga yordam berdi (matematikalar) Shankara va Advaita Vedanta madaniy ta'sirini kengaytirish.^[347]

Shankaradan keyingi davr - dastlabki o'rta asrlar

Surevara va Maṇḍana Miśra

Surevara (mil. 800-900 y.)^[354] va Maṇḍana Mi Shra Shankaraning zamondoshlari bo'lgan, Surevara ko'pincha (noto'g'ri) Maṇḍana Miśra bilan tanilgan.^[355] Ikkalasi ham Sankarani "shaxsiy e'tiqodlari asosida" tushuntirdilar.^[355] Surevvara, shuningdek, Advaita Vedantaning Shankaradan oldingi filialining asoschisi sifatida tan olingan.^[354]

Maana Miśra Mimamsa olimi va uning izdoshi edi Kumarila, shuningdek, Advaita-ga zamonaviy davrga qadar saqlanib qolgan seminal matn yozgan Braxma-Siddhi.^[356][357] An'anaga ko'ra, Maana Miśra va uning rafiqasi Shankaradan bahsda mag'lub bo'lishdi, shundan so'ng u Shankaraning izdoshi bo'ldi.^[356] Shankaraga nisbatan uning munosabati "Advaitaning o'ziga ishongan raqibi o'qituvchisi" edi,^[358] va uning ta'siri shunday bo'lganki, ba'zilar buni hisobga olishadi Braxma-Siddhi "Advaita-ning Shankaranga tegishli bo'lmagan brendini ishlab chiqarish" "^[356] Ushbu asarda keltirilgan "xato nazariyasi" Advaita Vedanta xatolik haqidagi normativ nazariyaga aylandi.^[359] Aynan Vachaspati Misraning ushbu asarga bergan sharhi uni Shankaraning ta'limoti bilan bog'lagan.^[360] Uning Advaita an'anasidagi nufuzli tezisi shundan iboratki, xatolar imkoniyatlardir, chunki ular "haqiqatga olib boradi" va to'liq to'g'ri bilim nafaqat haqiqatni tushunishni, balki xatolarni ham, haqiqat bo'lmagan narsalarni ham tekshirishni va tushunishni talab qiladi.^[361]

Xiriyanna va Kuppusvami Sastraning ta'kidlashicha, Syurevara va Maana Miera turli xil ta'limotlarga nisbatan har xil qarashlarga ega edilar:^[362]

• Joylashuvi avidya:^[362] Maṇḍana Miśra-ga ko'ra, shaxs jiva ning joylashgan joyi avidya, Suresvara esa buni avidya Brahman haqida Brahman joylashgan.^[362] Ushbu ikki xil pozitsiya Bhamati maktabi va Vivarana maktabining qarama-qarshi pozitsiyalarida ham aks etadi.^[362]
• Ozodlik: Maana Milaning so'zlariga ko'ra, Mahavakiyadan kelib chiqadigan bilimlar ozod bo'lish uchun etarli emas. Faqatgina Brahmani to'g'ridan-to'g'ri amalga oshirish ozod qiladi, unga faqat meditatsiya orqali erishish mumkin.^[363] Suresvaraning so'zlariga ko'ra, bu bilim to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ozod qiladi, meditatsiya esa eng yaxshi foydali yordamdir.^{[358][31-eslatma]}

Advaita Vedānta kichik maktablari

Shankara vafotidan keyin bir nechta kichik maktablar rivojlandi. Ulardan ikkitasi bugungi kunda ham mavjud Bhamati va Vivarana.^{[veb 11][299]} Ikkita ishlamay qolgan maktablar Pankapadika va Istasiddhi, ularning o'rnini Prakasatmanning Vivarana maktabi egalladi.^[365]

Ushbu maktablar turli Advaita ta'limotlarining mantiqiy natijalarini ishlab chiqdilar. Ular duch kelgan muammolardan ikkitasi tushunchalarini keyingi talqin qilish edi maya va avidya.^{[veb 11]}

Padmapada - Pancapadika maktabi

Padmapada (mil. 800 yil).^[366] yozgan Shankaraning bevosita shogirdi edi Pankapadika, sharh Sankara-bxaya.^[366] Padmapada o'zining tavsifida Shankaradan ajralib chiqdi avidya, belgilash prakrti kabi avidya yoki ajnana.^[367]

Vachaspati Misra - Bhamati maktabi

Vachaspati Misra (mil. 800-900)^[368] yozgan Brahmatattva-samiksa, Maṇḍana Miśraning sharhi Braxma-Siddhi, bu Mandana Misra va Shankara o'rtasidagi aloqani ta'minlaydi^[360] va Shankaraning fikrini shu bilan uyg'unlashtirishga urinishlar Mandana Misra.^{[veb 11]} Advaita an'analariga ko'ra, Shankara "Advaita tizimini o'zining Bhamati orqali ommalashtirish uchun" Vachaspati Misra sifatida qayta tug'ildi.^[368] Vachaspati Misraning atigi ikkita asari ma'lum Brahmatattva-samiksa Maṇḍrana Mirada Braxma-Siddhiva uning Bhamati ustida Sankara-bhasya, Shankaraning Braxma-sutralarga sharhi.^[360] Bhamati kichik maktabining nomi shundan kelib chiqqan Bhamati.^{[veb 11]}

Bhamati maktabi ontologik yondashuvga ega. Ko'radi Jiva avidya manbai sifatida.^{[veb 11]} U meditatsiyani ozodlikka erishishning asosiy omili, Vedalarni o'rganish va aks ettirish esa qo'shimcha omillar deb biladi.^[369]

Prakasatman - Vivarana maktabi

Prakasatman (taxminan 1200-1300)^[365] yozgan Pankapadika-Vivarana, sharh Pankapadika tomonidan Padmapadacharya.^[365] The Vivarana o'z nomini keyingi maktabga beradi. Roodurmumning so'zlariga ko'ra, "[H] - bu fikrlash yo'nalishi [...] Advaita an'anasi evolyutsiyasidagi barcha keyingi o'zgarishlarning leytmotiviga aylandi".^[365]

Vivarana maktabi epistemologik yondashuvni qo'llaydi. Prakasatman birinchi bo'lib nazariyasini ilgari surdi mulavidya yoki maya "ijobiy boshlang'ichsiz tabiat" sifatida,^[370] va Brahmanni avidya manbai deb biladi. Tanqidchilar Brahman sof ong, shuning uchun u avidya manbai bo'lishi mumkin emas deb e'tiroz bildirmoqda. Yana bir muammo shundaki, qarama-qarshi fazilatlar, ya'ni bilim va jaholat Braxmanga tegishli.^{[veb 11]}

Vimuktatman - Ista-Siddhi

Vimuktatman (mil. 1200 yil).^[371] yozgan Ista-Siddhi.^[371] Bu an'anaviy to'rttadan biridir siddhi, Mandana bilan birga Braxma-Siddhi, Suresvaraning Naiskarmya-siddhiva Madusudananing Advaita-Siddhi.^[372] Vimuktatmanning fikriga ko'ra, mutlaq Haqiqat "sof intuitiv ong" dir.^[373] Oxir-oqibat uning fikrlash maktabi o'rnini Prakasatmanning Vivarana maktabi egalladi.^[365]

So'nggi o'rta asrlar (Hindistonning islomiy boshqaruvi) - "Buyuk Advaita Vedanta"

Maykl s. Allen va Anand Venkatkrishnan Shankara juda yaxshi o'rganganligini ta'kidlashadi, ammo "olimlar Advaita Vedanta tarixini mustamlakachilik davridan oldingi asrlar haqida to'liq ma'lumot berish u yoqda tursin, hatto ibtidoiy ma'lumot berishmagan".^[374]

Taniqli o'qituvchilar

Sangeetha Menonning so'zlariga ko'ra, keyingi Advaita an'analarida taniqli ismlar:^{[veb 12]}

• Prakatatman, Vimuktatman, Sarvajatman (10-asr) (yuqoriga qarang)
• Īrī Xarṣa, Tsitsuxa (12-asr)
• anandagiri, Amalandanda (13-asr)
• Vidyarayya, Chakarānandā (14-asr)
• Sadandan (15-asr)
• Prakāṣānanda, Nsiṁhā (rama (16-asr)
• Madhusūdhana Sarasvati, Dharmaraja Advarindra, Appaya Dīkita (17-asr)

Yog 'an'analarining ta'siri

Pol Xaker va Vilgelm Halbfass singari indologlar Shankaraning tizimini "pravoslav" Advaita Vedanta uchun o'lchov sifatida qabul qilgan bo'lsalar, O'rta asrlarda yashagan Advaita Vedannta urf-odatlari yog 'an'analari va shu kabi matnlardan ta'sirlanib, tarkibiga kiritilgan. Yoga Vasistha va Bhagavata Purana.^[375] The Yoga Vasistha XIV asrda Advaita vedānta an'anasida nufuzli manba matniga aylandi, Vidyarayya esa Jivanmuktiviveka (14-asr) ning ta'siri ostida bo'lgan (Laghu-) Yoga-Vasistha, bu o'z navbatida ta'sir ko'rsatdi Kashmir shayvizmi.^[376] Vivekanandaning 19-asrdagi ahamiyati nirvikalpa samadhi oldin Advaita Vedanta-ga o'rta asrlarda yog ta'sir ko'rsatgan. XVI-XVII asrlarda ba'zilari Nat va xata yoga matnlar, shuningdek, rivojlanayotgan Advaita Vedannta an'analari doirasiga kirdi.^[377]

Markaziy pozitsiyani rivojlantirish

Eng yuqori hind falsafasi

O'rta asrlarda Advaita Vedanta hind diniy falsafalarining eng yuqori darajasi sifatida qabul qilindi,^[378] Advaita Vedanta-ga g'arbiy qiziqish va g'arbiy in'ikoslarning hinduizm haqidagi hind tushunchalariga keyingi ta'siri tufayli zamonaviy davrda kuchaygan rivojlanish.^[379]

Bundan farqli o'laroq, Kingning ta'kidlashicha, uning hozirgi mavqei hind ziyolilarining ko'p asrlik xristianlik polemikasiga javoban Hindiston yarim orolining mustamlakachilik davrida "hindlarning pastligi majmuasini" o'rnatishga qaratilgan.^[380] Hozirgi kunda Neo-Vedanta deb nomlangan "gumanistik, inklyuzivistik" formulalar ushbu "mustamlakachilik stereotipiga" hind madaniyati qoloq, xurofot va G'arbdan past bo'lgan "degan javobni berishga urindi", deydi King. Advaita Vedanta hinduizmning markaziy falsafasi sifatida taxmin qilingan va Neo-Vedanta buddistlik g'oyalarini o'z ichiga olgan va o'z ichiga olgan. Budda Vedanta an'analarining bir qismi, barchasi hind madaniyati tarixini qayta tiklashga qaratilgan. Shunday qilib, deydi King, neo-Vedanta g'arbga munosabat sifatida rivojlandi Sharqshunoslik va Ko'p yillik hayot.^[381] Vivekanandaning sa'y-harakatlari bilan Advaita Vedanta zamonaviy formulasi "hind intellektual fikrida hukmron kuchga aylandi", hindlarning e'tiqodlari va amallari xilma-xil.^[382]

Birlashtiruvchi hinduizm

Advaita Vedanta turli hind urf-odatlarini tasniflashda markaziy o'rinni egalladi. Ba'zi olimlarning fikriga ko'ra, bu birinchi navbatda Dehli Sultonligi shaklida Mo'g'ul imperiyasi va keyinchalik hind dinlarini ta'qib qilish kabi islomiy hukmronlikning kelishi bilan hindu ulamolar o'zlarini anglash va birlikni aniqlashga urinishlarni boshladilar.^[383][384] XII-XIV asrlar orasida, Endryu Nikolsonning fikriga ko'ra, bu harakat hind falsafalarining astika va nastika tizimlarini tasnifi bilan paydo bo'ldi.^[385] Ba'zi mutafakkirlar, Nikolsonning tezisiga ko'ra, qadimgi fikrni "oltita tizim" ga retrospektiv ravishda tasniflay boshladilar (saddarsanaasosiy hind falsafasi.^[386]

Boshqa olimlar, Nikolsonni e'tirof etishicha, muqobil tezisni taqdim etishadi. Vedalar, Upanishadalar va Bhagavad Gita kabi yozuvlar, matnlar Dharmasutras va Puranalarva paradigmatik hinduizm deb hisoblanadigan turli xil g'oyalar ming yillar davomida kuzatilishi mumkin. Xristianlik va islomdan farqli o'laroq, hinduizm din sifatida yagona asoschiga ega emas, aksincha bu mutafakkirlar galaktikasi bir-birining ta'limotlariga qarshi ochiqchasiga qarshilik ko'rsatgan va o'z g'oyalarini taklif qilgan turli xil bilimlarning birlashmasidir.^[386] Arvind Sharmaning ta'kidlashicha, "hindu" atamasi arab tilidagi, hind yarimorolining islomiy bosqini yoki mintaqaviy hukmronligini qayd etgan matnlarda uchraydi. Ushbu matnlarning ba'zilari VIII-XI asrlarga tegishli.^[387] Bular ichida dokologiyalar va yozuvlarga ko'ra, Advaita Vedanta eng yuqori lavozimga ega bo'ldi, chunki u eng inklyuziv tizim deb hisoblandi.^[388]

Hozirgi zamon (mustamlaka hukmronligi va mustaqillik)

Sangeetha Menonning so'zlariga ko'ra, Sadadiva Brahmendra XVIII asrning taniqli Advaita Vedantin bo'lgan.^{[veb 12]}

Hind millatchiligiga ta'siri

Kingning so'zlariga ko'ra, ingliz imperatorlik hukmronligining mustahkamlanishi bilan bir qatorda sharqshunoslik paydo bo'ldi, unda yangi hukmdorlar hindularni "mustamlaka tomonidan ishlab chiqarilgan linzalar" orqali ko'rib chiqdilar. Bunga javoban hind millatchiligi mustamlakachilik hukmronligiga qarshi, xristian va musulmon jamoalarining karikaturasiga qarshi va ijtimoiy-siyosiy mustaqillik uchun paydo bo'ldi.^[389] Ushbu mustamlakachilik davridagi shaxsni qidirishda Vedanta hinduizmning mohiyati, Advaita Vedanta esa "o'shanda hind dinining sirli tabiatining paradigmatik namunasi" va "inklyuzivizm" soyaboni sifatida qaraldi.^[390] Advaita Vedantaning ushbu soyaboni, Kingning so'zlariga ko'ra, "hindularni mustamlaka zulmiga qarshi kurashda birlashtira oladigan millatchilik mafkurasini qurish uchun imkoniyat yaratdi".^[391]

Mustamlakachilik davridagi ziyolilar orasida, post-mustamlakachilikka ixtisoslashgan adabiyot professori Anshuman Mondalning fikriga ko'ra, monist Advaita Vedanta hind millatchiligi uchun asosiy mafkuraviy kuch bo'lgan. Maxatma Gandi Advaita Vedanta monizmini e'tirof etgan bo'lsa-da, ba'zida u hinduizmning aqli-tanasi dualizmi maktablarining so'zlari bilan gaplashar edi.^[392] Vivekananda singari boshqa mustamlakachilik davridagi hind mutafakkirlari Advaita Vedanta-ni inklyuziv universal din, qisman diniy singdirilgan shaxsiyatni tashkil etishga yordam beradigan ma'naviyat va hind millatchiligining ko'tarilishi, Islom singari musulmon kommunistik tashkilotlariga qarshi og'irlik sifatida taqdim etishdi. The Musulmonlar ligasi, nasroniylik tomonidan singdirilgan mustamlakachilik sharqshunosligi va hind dinlariga mansub kishilarni diniy ta'qib qilish.^{[393][384][394]}

Swami Vivekananda

Advaita Vedantaning ushbu universalist va ko'p yillik talqinini ommalashtirishda asosiy tarafdor bo'lgan. Vivekananda,^[395] da katta rol o'ynagan hinduizmning tiklanishi,^[396] va Advaita Vedanta ning g'arbga yoyilishi Ramakrishna missiyasi. Uning Advaita Vedanta talqini "Neo-Vedannta" deb nomlangan. Vivekananda a universal din, turli xil urf-odatlar o'rtasidagi barcha aniq farqlarni bitta haqiqatning turli xil ko'rinishlari deb hisoblash.^[397] U karma, baxti, jnana va raja yoga-ni mokshaga erishish uchun teng vositalar sifatida taqdim etdi,^[398] boshqa dinlarning eksklyuzivizmidan farqli o'laroq, Vedanta-ni liberal va umuminsoniy din sifatida namoyish etish.^[398]

Vivekananda ta'kidladi nirvikalpa samadhi Vedantaning ma'naviy maqsadi sifatida u uni ozodlikka tenglashtirdi Yoga va u chaqirgan yoga amaliyotini rag'batlantirdi Raja yoga.^[399] Biroq, ushbu yondashuv tarixiy Advaita matnlarida yo'q.^[400] 1896 yilda Vivekananda Advaita zamonaviy olimlarga murojaat qiladi:

Jasorat bilan aytishim mumkinki, jismoniy va axloqiy yo'nalishlarda zamonaviy tadqiqotchilar bilan rozi bo'lgan va hatto undan biroz nariga o'tadigan yagona din - Advaita, shuning uchun u zamonaviy olimlarga juda yoqadi. Ular eski dualistik nazariyalar ular uchun etarli emasligini, ularning ehtiyojlarini qondirmasligini aniqlaydilar. Erkakda nafaqat iymon, balki aqliy imon ham bo'lishi kerak ".^{[veb 13]}

Ga binoan Rambachan, Vivekananda sharhlaydi anubhava "shaxsiy tajriba" degan ma'noni anglatadi diniy tajribaShankara esa ushbu atamani "erkinlik" tushunchasini ifodalash uchun ishlatgan sruti.^{[85][401][402]}

Vivekanandaning ma'naviyat haqidagi "ilm-fan" va zamonaviy degan da'volari, Devid Millerning so'zlariga ko'ra, yaxshi ma'lumotga ega bo'lgan olimlar tomonidan so'roq qilinishi mumkin, ammo bu uning davridagi olimlar va sotsiologlar tomonidan nasroniylik va islomga qanday qarashidan farqli ekanligiga e'tibor qaratdi.^[403]

Sarvepalli Radxakrishnan

Dastlab Oksford universitetining professori va keyinchalik Hindiston prezidenti bo'lgan Sarvepalli Radxakrishnan Advaita Vedanta-ni hinduizmning mohiyati sifatida namoyish etib, yanada ommalashtirdi.^[veb-14] Dinshunoslik professori Maykl Xolining so'zlariga ko'ra, Radxakrishnan boshqa dinlarni, shuningdek "Radxakrishnan hinduizmning quyi shakllari deb tushunadigan narsalarni" Advaita Vedanta talqini sifatida ko'rgan va shu bilan "bir ma'noda barcha dinlarni hinduizatsiya qilish".^{[veb 14]} Uning fikriga ko'ra, dunyo diniy muammoga duch keladi, bu erda reflektiv bo'lmagan dogmatizm va eksklyuzivizm mavjud bo'lib, "tajriba dini" va "inklyuzivizm" ga ehtiyoj tug'dirmoqda. Advaita Vedanta, da'vo qilgan Radxakrishnan, bu ehtiyojni qondiradigan hindlarning falsafiy, teologik va adabiy an'analarini yaxshi namoyish etadi.^{[veb-14][404][405]} Radxakrishnan Buddizm, jaynizm, sixizm va hinduizm o'rtasidagi farqlarni Advaita Vedanta nuqtai nazaridan aniqlaganligini ta'kidlamadi, aksincha u ularning farqlarini minimallashtirishga intildi. Bu, masalan, uning Buddistlarning "Madhyamika va Yogacara" an'analari va Advaita Vedannta an'analari haqidagi munozaralarida aniq ko'rinib turibdi.^[405]

Radxakrishnan metafizikasi Advaita Vedanta-ga asoslangan edi, ammo u Advaita Vedanta-ni zamonaviy ehtiyojlar va kontekst uchun qayta talqin qildi.^[veb-14] U tajriba dunyosining haqiqati va xilma-xilligini tan oldi, uni transsendent metafizik mutlaq kontseptsiyasi asoslanib qo'llab-quvvatladi (nirguna Braxman).^{[veb-14][32-eslatma]} Radxakrishnan Shankaraning tushunchasini ham izohladi maya. Radxakrishnanning so'zlariga ko'ra, maya qat'iy mutlaq idealizm emas, balki "dunyoni sub'ektiv ravishda noto'g'ri qabul qilish, oxir-oqibat haqiqiy".^{[veb-14][407]}

Maxatama Gandi

Gandi Advaita Vedanta bilan sodiqligini e'lon qildi va uning g'oyalarini ommalashtiradigan yana bir kuch edi.^[408] Nikolay Gierning so'zlariga ko'ra, bu Gandi uchun Xudo va odamlarning birligini, barcha mavjudotlar bir xil ruhga ega ekanligini va shuning uchun tenglikni anglatishini anglatadi. atman mavjud va koinotdagi hamma narsa bilan bir xil, ahimsa (zo'ravonlik qilmaslik) - bu tabiatning o'zi atman.^[408] Gandi o'zini ko'p marotaba advitist deb atagan, shu jumladan uning maktublari, lekin u boshqalarning nuqtai nazaridan boshqacha nuqtai nazarga ega bo'lish huquqiga ega, chunki ular boshqa zamon va nuqtai nazardan kelib chiqqan.^[409][410] Gierning so'zlariga ko'ra, Gandi izohlamagan maya illyuziya sifatida, lekin "shaxsiy teozizm" diniylikning ikki pog'onasi sifatida "shaxssiz monizm" ga olib borishini qabul qildi.^[408]

Zamonaviy Advaita Vedannta

Zamonaviy o'qituvchilar pravoslav hisoblanadi Sringeri Sharada Pitemdan Jagadguru; ko'proq an'anaviy o'qituvchilar Sivananda Sarasvati (1887–1963), Chinmayananda Sarasvati (1916-1993),^{[veb 15]} Dayananda Sarasvati (Arsha Vidya) (1930-2015), Swami Paramarthananda, Swami Tattvavidananda Sarasvati, Kerol Whitfield (Radha), Shri Vasudevacharya ^{[veb 15]} kabi kamroq an'anaviy o'qituvchilar Narayana gurusi.^{[veb 15]} Sangeetha Menonning so'zlariga ko'ra, 20-asr Advaita an'analarida taniqli ismlar Shri Chandrashexara Bxarati Mahasvami, Chandrasekharendra Sarasvati Swamigal, Sakchidānandendra Saraswati.^{[veb 12]}

Yangi diniy oqimlarga ta'sir

Neo-Advaita

Neo-Advaita a Yangi diniy harakat Advaita Vedanta va ta'limotining ommalashgan, g'arbiy talqini asosida Ramana Maxarshi.^[411] Neo-Advaita tanqid qilinmoqda^{[412][33-eslatma][414][34-eslatma][35-eslatma]} Muqaddas Bitiklarni bilishning an'anaviy shartlarini bekor qilgani uchun^[416] va "yo'lidan o'tish uchun zaruriy tayyorgarlik sifatida voz kechish jnana-yoga".^[416][417] Taniqli neo-advayta o'qituvchilari H. W. L. Poonja,^[418][411] uning shogirdlari Gangaji^[419] Endryu Koen^[36-eslatma]va Ekxart Tolle.^[411]

Dualizm

Advaita Vedanta g'arbda e'tiborni qozondi ma'naviyat va Yangi asr, qayerda turli urf-odatlar bir xil dual bo'lmagan tajriba tomonidan boshqariladigan sifatida ko'riladi.^[421] Nondality "sub'ekt yoki ob'ektsiz dastlabki, tabiiy ongni" ko'rsatmoqda.^{[veb 20]} It is also used to refer to interconnectedness, "the sense that all things are interconnected and not separate, while at the same time all things retain their individuality".^{[web 21]}

Sampradaya

Monastir tartibi: Advaita Mathas

(Vidyashankara temple) at Sringeri Sharada Pitxem, Shringeri

Advaita Vedānta is not just a philosophical system, but also a tradition of voz kechish. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:^{[web 22]}

Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values, attitudes and metaphysics.^{[web 22]}

Shankara organized monks under 10 names and established mathas for them. These mathas contributed to the influence of Shankara, which was "due to institutional factors". The mathas which he established remain active today, and preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars before him came to be forgotten with the passage of time".^[422]

Shri Gaudapadacharya matematikasi

Around 740 AD Gaudapada founded Shri Gaudapadacharya Math^{[note 37]}, shuningdek, nomi bilan tanilgan Kavaḷē maṭha. U joylashgan Kavale, Ponda, Goa,^{[web 23]} and is the oldest matha ning Janubiy hind Sarasvat braxmanlari.^{[313][web 24]}

Shankaraning monastir an'anasi

Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of Shiva,^{[web 22]} established the Dashanami Sampradaya, organizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an umbrella grouping of ten names.^{[web 22]}Several Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions, however, remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis.^{[423][424][425]}

Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four Maṭhas (Sanskritcha: मठ) (monasteries), called the Amnaya Mathas, with the headquarters at Dvaraka in the West, Jagannatha Puri Sharqda, Sringeri in the South and Badrikashrama shimolda.^{[web 22]} Each math was first headed by one of his four main disciples, and the tradition continues since then.^{[note 38]} According to another tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's samadhi at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely Naduvil Madhom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.

The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya Mathas founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.^{[web 25]}

Monks of these ten orders differ in part in their beliefs and practices, and a section of them is not considered to be restricted to specific changes made by Shankara. While the dasanāmis associated with the Sankara maths follow the procedures enumerated by Adi Śankara, some of these orders remained partly or fully independent in their belief and practices; and outside the official control of the Sankara maths. The advaita sampradaya is not a Saiva mazhab,^{[web 22][428]} despite the historical links with Shaivism.^{[note 39]} Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more influence among Saiva communities than among Vaisnava communities.^{[web 22]}

Vedantaning boshqa shakllari bilan aloqasi

The Advaita Vedānta ideas, particularly of 8th century Adi Shankara, were challenged by theistic Vedānta philosophies that emerged centuries later, such as the 11th-century Vishishtadvaita (qualified nondualizm) ning Ramanuja, and the 14th-century Dvaita (theistic dualism) of Madhvacharya.^[429]

Vishishtadvaita

Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita school and Shankara's Advaita school are both nondualism Vedānta schools,^[430][431] both are premised on the assumption that all souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya and his Dvaita subschool of Vedānta believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned.^[432][433] Shankara's theory posits that only Brahman and causes are metaphysical unchanging reality, while the empirical world (Mayya) and observed effects are changing, illusive and of relative existence.^[434][435] Spiritual liberation to Shankara is the full comprehension and realization of oneness of one's unchanging Atman (soul) as the same as Atman in everyone else as well as being identical to the nirguna Brahman.^{[431][436][437]} In contrast, Ramanuja's theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither should be called false or illusive, and saguna Brahman with attributes is also real.^[435] God, like man, states Ramanuja, has both soul and body, and all of the world of matter is the glory of God's body.^[430] The path to Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god (saguna Brahman, Vishnu), one which ultimately leads one to the oneness with nirguna Brahman.^{[430][434][435]}

Shuddadvaita

Vallabxacharya (1479–1531 CE), the proponent of the philosophy of Shuddadvaita Brahmvad enunciates that Ishvara has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Maya (which itself is his power) and manifests Himself through the world.^[438] That is why shuddhadvaita is known as 'Unmodified transformation' or 'Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'. Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a 'part' (but devoid of bliss).^[439]

Dvaita

Madhvacharya was also a critic of Advaita Vedānta. Advaita's nondualism asserted that Atman (soul) and Brahman are identical, there is interconnected oneness of all souls and Brahman, and there are no pluralities.^[440][441] Madhva in contrast asserted that Atman (soul) and Brahman are different, only Vishnu is the Lord (Brahman), individual souls are also different and depend on Vishnu, and there are pluralities.^[440][441] Madhvacharya stated that both Advaita Vedānta and Mahayana buddizmi edi a nigilistik school of thought.^[442] Madhvacharya wrote four major texts, including Upadhikhandana va Tattvadyota, primarily dedicated to criticizing Advaita.^[442]

Present-day Krishna-devotees are highly critical of Advaita Vedānta, regarding it as māyāvāda, identical to Mahayana Buddhism.^{[web 26][web 27]}

Tarixiy ta'sir

Maxatma Gandi stated "I am an advaitist".^[409][410]

Scholars are divided on the historical influence of Advaita Vedānta. Some Indologists state that it is one of the most studied Hindu philosophy and the most influential schools of classical Indian thought.^{[443][28][444]} Advaita Vedānta, states Eliot Deutsch, "has been and continues to be the most widely accepted system of thought among philosophers in India, and it is, we believe, one of the greatest philosophical achievements to be found in the East or the West".^[445]

Smarta an'anasi

The Smarta ning an'anasi Hinduizm is an ancient tradition,^{[note 40]} particularly found in south and west India, that revers all Hindu divinities as a step in their spiritual pursuit.^{[447][448][449]} Ularning ibodat qilish practice is called Panchayatana puja.^[450][447] The worship symbolically consists of five deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Devi yoki Durga, Surya va Ishta Devata or any personal god of devotee's preference.^[448][451]

In the Smarta tradition, Advaita Vedānta ideas combined with baxti are its foundation. Adi Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher^[449] and reformer of the Smarta.^[452] Ga binoan Alf Xiltebeitel, Shankara's Advaita Vedānta and practices became the doctrinal unifier of previously conflicting practices with the smarta an'ana.^{[note 41]}

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all images and statues (murti), or just five marks or any anicons on the ground, are visibly convenient icons of spirituality saguna Brahman.^[454][450] The multiple icons are seen as multiple representations of the same idea, rather than as distinct beings. These serve as a step and means to realizing the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (soul, self) and Brahman – as "That art Thou".^[454][455]

Hindlarning boshqa an'analari

Within the ancient and medieval texts of Hindu traditions, such as Vaishnavizm, Shaivizm va Shaktizm, the ideas of Advaita Vedānta have had a major influence. Advaita Vedānta influenced Krishna Vaishnavism in the different parts of India.^[456] One of its most popular text, the Bhagavata Purana, adopts and integrates in Advaita Vedānta philosophy.^{[457][458][459]} The Bhagavata Purana is generally accepted by scholars to have been composed in the second half of 1st millennium CE.^[460][461]

In the ancient and medieval literature of Shaivizm, deb nomlangan Āgamas, the influence of Advaita Vedānta is once again prominent.^{[462][463][464]} Of the 92 Āgamas, ten are Dvaita texts, eighteen are Bhedabheda, and sixty-four are Advaita matnlar.^[465][466] According to Natalia Isaeva, there is an evident and natural link between 6th-century Gaudapada's Advaita Vedānta ideas and Kashmir shayvizmi.^[467]

Shaktizm, the Hindu tradition where a goddess is considered identical to Brahman, has similarly flowered from a syncretism of the monist premises of Advaita Vedānta and dualism premises of Samkhya–Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, sometimes referred to as Shaktadavaitavada (literally, the path of nondualistic Shakti).^{[468][469][470]}

Other influential ancient and medieval classical texts of Hinduism such as the Yoga Yajnavalkya, Yoga Vashishta, Avadhuta Gitā, Markandeya Purana va Sannyasa Upanishadlari predominantly incorporate premises and ideas of Advaita Vedānta.^{[471][472][473]}

Buddizm bilan aloqalar

Advaita Vedānta and Mahayana Buddhism share similarities and have differences,^[474][475] their relationship a subject of dispute among scholars.^[476] The similarities between Advaita and Buddhism have attracted Indian and Western scholars attention,^[477] and have also been criticised by concurring schools. The similarities have been interpreted as Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedānta, while others deny such influences, or see them as variant expressions.^[478] Ga binoan Daniel Ingalls, the Japanese Buddhist scholarship has argued that Adi Shankara did not understand Buddhism.^[476]

Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its Mayya and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism.^[479][480] Ramanuja, the founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedānta, accused Adi Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha, that is, a "crypto-Buddhist",^[481] and someone who was undermining theistic Bxakti devotionalism.^[480] The non-Advaita scholar Bxaskara of the Bhedabheda Vedānta tradition, similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara's Advaita as "this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists", and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy.^[480]

A few Buddhist scholars made the opposite criticism in the medieval era toward their Buddhist opponents. In the sixth century CE, for example, the Mahayana Buddhist scholar Bhaviveka redefined Vedantic concepts to show how they fit into Madhyamaka concepts,^[482] and "equate[d] the Buddha's Dharma body with Brahman, the ultimate reality of the Upanishads."^[483] Uning ichida Madhyamakahṛdayakārikaḥ, Bhaviveka stages a Hinayana (Theravada) interlocutor, who accuses Mahayana Buddhists of being "crypto-Vedantins".^{[484][485][note 42]} Medieval era Tibetan Gelugpa scholars accused the Jonang school of being "crypto-Vedantist."^{[486][487][note 43]} Contemporary scholar Devid Kalupaxana called the seventh century Buddhist scholar Chandrakirti a "crypto-Vedantist", a view rejected by scholars of Madhayamika Buddhism.^[488]

The Advaita Vedānta tradition has historically rejected accusations of crypto-Buddhism highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta va Braxman.^[475]

Buddizm bilan o'xshashliklar

According to scholars, the influence of Mahayana buddizmi on Advaita Vedānta has been significant.^[480][489] Advaita Vedānta and various other schools of Hindu philosophy share numerous terminology, doctrines and dialectical techniques with Buddhism.^[490][491] According to a 1918 paper by the Buddhism scholar O. Rozenberg, "a precise differentiation between Brahmanism and Buddhism is impossible to draw."^[490]

Both traditions hold that "the empirical world is transitory, a show of appearances",^[492][493] and both admit "degrees of truth or existence".^[494] Both traditions emphasize the human need for spiritual liberation (moksha, nirvana, kaivalya), however with different assumptions.^{[495][note 44]} Adi Shankara, states Natalia Isaeva, incorporated "into his own system a Buddhist notion of maya which had not been minutely elaborated in the Upanishads".^[490] Similarly, there are many points of contact between Buddhism's Vijnanavada and Shankara's Advaita.^[497]

According to Frank Whaling, the similarities between Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism are not limited to the terminology and some doctrines, but also includes practice. The monastic practices and monk tradition in Advaita are similar to those found in Buddhism.^[480]

Dasgupta and Mohanta suggest that Buddhism and Shankara's Advaita Vedānta represent "different phases of development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the Upanishadic period to the time of Sankara."^{[498][note 45]} Ning ta'siri Mahayana buddizmi on other religions and philosophies was not limited to Vedānta. Kalupaxana ta'kidlashicha Visuddimagga of Theravada Buddhism tradition contains "some metaphysical speculations, such as those of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, and even the Yogakarinlar".^[501] According to John Plott,

We must emphasize again that generally throughout the Gupta sulolasi, and even more so after its decline, there developed such a high degree of syncretism and such toleration of all points of view that Mahayana Buddhism had been Hinduized almost as much as Hinduism had been Buddhaized.^[502]

Gaudapada

The influence of Buddhist doctrines on Gaudapada has been a vexed question.^[503][504]

One school of scholars, such as Bhattacharya and Raju, state that Gaudapada took over the Buddhist doctrines that yakuniy haqiqat sof ongdir (vijñapti-mātra)^{[505][note 46]} and "that the nature of the world is the four-cornered negation, which is the structure of Māyā".^[505][508]

Of particular interest is Chapter Four of Gaudapada's text Karika, in which according to Bhattacharya, two karikas refer to the Budda va muddat Asparsayoga is borrowed from Buddhism.^[503] According to Murti, "the conclusion is irresistible that Gaudapada, a Vedānta philosopher, is attempting an Advaitic interpretation of Vedānta in the light of the Madhyamika va Yogakara ta'limotlar. He even freely quotes and appeals to them."^[311] However, adds Murti, the doctrines are unlike Buddhism. Chapter One, Two and Three are entirely Vedantin and founded on the Upanishads, with little Buddhist flavor.^[311] Further, state both Murti and King, no Vedānta scholars who followed Gaudapada ever quoted from Chapter Four, they only quote from the first three.^[311][312] According to Sarma, "to mistake him [Gaudapada] to be a hidden or open Buddhist is absurd".^[509] The doctrines of Gaudapada and Buddhism are totally opposed, states Murti:^[311]

We have been talking of borrowing, influence and relationship in rather general terms. It is necessary to define the possible nature of the borrowing, granting that it did take place. (...) The Vedantins stake everything on the Atman (Brahman) and accept the authority of the Upanishads. We have pointed out at length the Nayratmya standpoint of Buddhism and its total opposition to the Atman (soul, substance, the permanent and universal) in any form.

— TRV Murti, Buddizmning markaziy falsafasi^[510]

Advaitins have traditionally challenged the Buddhist influence thesis.^[503] Modern scholarship generally accepts that Gaudapada was influenced by Buddhism, at least in terms of using Buddhist terminology to explain his ideas, but adds that Gaudapada was a Vedantin and not a Buddhist.^[503] Gaudapada adopted some Buddhist terminology and borrowed its doctrines to his Vedantic goals, much like early Buddhism adopted Upanishadic terminology and borrowed its doctrines to Buddhist goals; both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new meanings.^[502][474] While there is shared terminology, the Advaita doctrines of Gaudapada and Buddhism are fundamentally different.^[311][511]

Buddizmdan farqlar

Atman va anatta

Advaita Vedānta holds the premise, "Soul exists, and Soul (or self, Atman) is a self evident truth". Buddhism, in contrast, holds the premise, "Atman does not exist, and An-atman (or Anatta, non-self)^[512] is self evident".^[513][514]

Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad gives a more nuanced view, stating that the Advaitins "assert a stable subjectivity, or a unity of consciousness through all the specific states of indivuated consciousness, but not an individual subject of consciousness [...] the Advaitins split immanent reflexivity from 'mineness'."^[515]

Buddizmda, Anatta (Pali, Sanskrit cognate An-atman) is the concept that in human beings and living creatures, there is no "eternal, essential and absolute something called a soul, self or atman".^[516] Buddhist philosophy rejects the concept and all doctrines associated with atman, call atman as illusion (maya), asserting instead the theory of "no-self" and "no-soul."^[513][517] Most schools of Buddhism, from its earliest days, have denied the existence of the "self, soul" in its core philosophical and ontological texts. In contrast to Advaita, which describes knowing one's own soul as identical with Brahman as the path to nirvana, in its soteriological themes Buddhism has defined nirvana as the state of a person who knows that he or she has "no self, no soul".^[516][518]

The Upanishadic inquiry fails to find an empirical correlate of the assumed Atman, but nevertheless assumes its existence,^[519] and Advaitins "reify consciousness as an eternal self."^[520] In contrast, the Buddhist inquiry "is satisfied with the empirical investigation which shows that no such Atman exists because there is no evidence." states Jayatilleke.^[519]

Yet, some Buddhist texts chronologically placed in the 1st millennium of common era, such as the Mahayana tradition's Tathāgatagarbha sitras suggest self-like concepts, variously called Tathagatagarbha yoki Budda tabiati.^[521][522] These have been controversial idea in Buddhism, and "eternal self" concepts have been generally rejected. In modern era studies, scholars such as Wayman and Wayman state that these "self-like" concepts are neither self nor sentient being, nor soul, nor personality.^[523][524] Some scholars posit that the Tathagatagarbha Sutras were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists.^{[525][526][527]}

Epistemologiya

The epistemological foundations of Buddhism and Advaita Vedānta are different. Buddhism accepts two valid means to reliable and correct knowledge – perception and inference, while Advaita Vedānta accepts six (described elsewhere in this article).^{[223][240][528]} However, some Buddhists in history, have argued that Buddhist scriptures are a reliable source of spiritual knowledge, corresponding to Advaita's Daabda pramana, however Buddhists have treated their scriptures as a form of inference method.^[529]

Ontologiya

Advaita Vedānta posits a substance ontology, an ontology which holds that underlying the change and impermanence of empirical reality is an unchanging and permanent absolute reality, like an eternal substance it calls Atman-Brahman.^[530] In its substance ontology, as like other philosophies, there exist a universal, particulars and specific properties and it is the interaction of particulars that create events and processes.^[531]

Farqli o'laroq, Buddizm posits a process ontology, also called as "event ontology".^[532][531] According to the Buddhist thought, particularly after the rise of ancient Mahayana Buddhism scholarship, there is neither empirical nor absolute permanent reality and ontology can be explained as a process.^{[532][533][note 47]} There is a system of relations and interdependent phenomena (pratitya samutpada) in Buddhist ontology, but no stable persistent identities, no eternal universals nor particulars. Thought and memories are mental constructions and fluid processes without a real observer, personal agency or cognizer in Buddhism. In contrast, in Advaita Vedānta, like other schools of Hinduism, the concept of self (atman) is the real on-looker, personal agent and cognizer.^[535]

The Pali Abdhidhamma and Theravada Buddhism considered all existence as dhamma, and left the ontological questions about reality and the nature of dhamma unexplained.^[532]

According to Renard, Advaita's theory of three levels of reality is built on the two levels of reality found in the Madhyamika.^[536]

Shankara buddizm to'g'risida

A central concern for Shankara, in his objections against Buddhism, is what he perceives as nihilism of the Buddhists.^[537] Shankara states that there "must be something beyond cognition, namely a cognizer,"^[538] which he asserts is the self-evident Atman or witness.^[539] Buddhism, according to Shankara, denies the cognizer. He also considers the notion of Brahman as pure knowledge and "the quintessence of positive reality."^[537]

The teachings in Brahma Sutras, states Shankara, differ from both the Buddhist realists va Buddhist idealists. Shankara elaborates on these arguments against various schools of Buddhism, partly presenting refutations which were already standard in his time, and partly offering his own objections.^[540] Shankara's original contribution in explaining the difference between Advaita and Buddhism was his "argument for identity" and the "argument for the witness".^[541] In Shankara's view, the Buddhist are internally inconsistent in their theories, because "the reservoir-consciousness that [they] set up, being momentary, is no better than ordinary consciousness. Or, if [they] allow the reservoir-consciousness to be lasting, [they] destroy [their] theory of momentariness."^[542] In response to the idealists, he notes that their alaya-vijnana, or store-house consciousness, runs counter to the Buddhist theory of momentariness.^[537] Bilan bog'liq Sunyavada (Madhyamaka), Shankara states that "being contradictory to all valid means of knowledge, we have not thought worth while to refute" and "common sense (loka-vyavahara) cannot be denied without the discovery of some other truth".^[543]

Qabul qilish

Advaita Vedānta is most often regarded as an idealist monizm.^[30][32] According to King, Advaita Vedānta developed "to its ultimate extreme" the monistic ideas already present in the Upanishads.^[544] In contrast, states Milne, it is misleading to call Advaita Vedānta "monistic," since this confuses the "negation of difference" with "conflation into one."^[545] Advaita is a negative term (a-dvaita), states Milne, which denotes the "negation of a difference," between subject and object, or between perceiver and perceived. ^[545]

According to Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta teaches monistic oneness, however without the multiplicity premise of alternate monism theories.^[546] According to Jacqueline Hirst, Adi Shankara positively emphasizes "oneness" premise in his Brahma-sutra Bhasya 2.1.20, attributing it to all the Upanishads.^[547]

Nicholson states Advaita Vedānta contains realistic strands of thought, both in its oldest origins and in Shankara's writings.^[42]

Shuningdek qarang

• Cause and effect in Advaita Vedānta
• Kashmir shayvizmi
• Pandeizm
• Pantheizm

Izohlar

Adabiyotlar