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Hindu philosophy

Qismi bir qator kuni
Hind falsafasi
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Pravoslav
Heterodoks
Qismi bir qator kuni
Falsafa
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An'analar

Mintaqalar bo'yicha an'analar

Maktab bo'yicha an'analar

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Adabiyot
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Socrates.png Falsafa portali

Hind falsafasi falsafa, dunyoqarash va ta'limotni qamrab oladi[1] ichida paydo bo'lgan qadimgi Hindiston. Bularga oltita tizim kiradi (shad-darśana) – Sankxya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa va Vedanta.[2]

Hindiston an'analarida falsafa uchun ishlatiladigan so'z Darshana. Ushbu so'z sanskrit tilidan olingan yormoq (ko'rish, boshdan kechirish).[3]

Ular shuningdek Astika (teoistik) falsafiy an'analar va buni qabul qiladiganlardir Vedalar bilimning nufuzli, muhim manbai sifatida.[4][eslatma 1][2-eslatma] Qadimgi va o'rta asrlardagi Hindiston ham falsafiy tushunchalarni baham ko'rgan, ammo Vedalarni rad etgan falsafalarning manbai bo'lgan va ular shunday nomlangan nastika (heterodoks yoki pravoslav bo'lmagan) hind falsafalari.[2][4] Hindiston falsafalariga Nastika kiradi Buddizm, Jaynizm, Karvaka, Ājīvikava boshqalar.[7]

G'arb olimlari "asika" falsafalari va "nastika" falsafalari o'rtasidagi munosabatlar va farqlar haqida bahs yuritmoqdalar. Indologlar va Sharqshunoslar 18-19-asrlarning o'zlari hind adabiyoti va o'rta asr doksografiyalarining cheklanganligidan kelib chiqqan.[2] Hindu falsafasiga kiritilgan turli xil qardoshlik an'analari xilma-xil bo'lib, ularni umumiy tarix va tushunchalar, bir xil matn resurslari, o'xshash ontologik va soteriologik yo'nalish va kosmologiya birlashtiradi.[8][9] Buddizm va jaynizm alohida falsafa va din deb qaralsa, Karvaka kabi ba'zi heterodoksal an'analar ko'pincha hind falsafasi ichida alohida maktab sifatida qaraladi.[10][11][12]

Hindu falsafasi, shuningdek, oltita pravoslav falsafasining ikki yoki undan ko'prog'idagi g'oyalarni o'zida mujassamlashtirgan bir qator teoistik falsafalarning bir nechta kichik maktablarini o'z ichiga oladi, masalan, Nyayya realizmi, Vayistemaning naturalizmi, Saxiya dualizmi, dualizm emas Advaitani ozod qilish uchun muhim bo'lgan O'zini bilish, yoga va astsitizm va xudbinlik g'oyalari elementlari.[13][14][15] Bunday maktablarning misollari kiradi Pāśupata Śaiva, Ivaaiva siddhānta, Pratyabxijna, Rasevara va Vayava.[13][14] Ba'zi bir kichik maktablar tantrik g'oyalarini ba'zi buddaviy an'analarida mavjud bo'lgan fikrlar bilan bo'lishadilar.[16] Ushbu kichik maktablarning g'oyalari Puranalar va Igamalar.[17][18][19]

Hindu falsafasining har bir maktabi keng qamrovli epistemologik deb nomlangan adabiyot pramāṇaśāstras,[20][21] shuningdek, nazariyalar metafizika, aksiologiyava boshqa mavzular.[22]

Tasnifi

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Ikastika va nastika

In hinduizm tarixi, oltita pravoslav maktablari boshlanishidan oldin paydo bo'lgan Umumiy davr, va ba'zi maktablar hatto undan oldin paydo bo'lgan Budda [23] Ba'zi olimlar, hind falsafasining har bir asosiy maktabidagi qarashlarning xilma-xilligi va evolyutsiyasini hisobga olgan holda, pravoslav va heterodoks maktablarining tasnifi etarlicha yoki to'g'ri emasmi, degan savol tug'dirdi, ba'zi sub-maktablar heterodoks va pravoslav qarashlarini birlashtirdi.[24]

Qadimgi davrlardan boshlab hind falsafasi toifalarga bo'lingan astika va nastika fikr maktablari.[25] Hindu falsafasining pravoslav maktablari chaqirildi aḍdarśana ("olti tizim"). Ushbu sxema XII-XVI asrlar orasida yaratilgan Vedantinlar.[26]:2–3 Keyinchalik u dastlabki G'arb tomonidan qabul qilingan Indologlarva hind falsafasining zamonaviy tushunchalarini qamrab oladi.[26]:4–5

Ikastika

Oltita aqida (ortodoksal) maktablari mavjud.[3-eslatma] Ularning har biri a darśanava har bir darśana qabul qiladi Vedalar hokimiyat sifatida. Har bir astika darsanasi ham shuni qabul qiladi Atman (jon, abadiy o'zlik) mavjud.[4][27] The astika falsafa maktablari:

  1. Samxya - ateist va qat'iy dualistik nazariy ekspozitsiya ong va materiya.
  2. Yoga - Sankxyadan paydo bo'lgan va Sankxiya nazariyasidan amaliy foydalanishni ta'kidlaydigan maktab. Ushbu maktablar diqqat markazida meditatsiya, tafakkur va ozodlik.
  3. Nyaya yoki mantiq - o'rganadigan epistemologiya maktabi bilim manbalari.
  4. Vaysekika - An empirik maktabi atomizm.
  5. Mmṃsā - astsetik va antistististik maktab ortopraktsiya. Ushbu maktab oyatlarning to'g'ri talqini bilan shug'ullanadi Vedalar.
  6. Vedanta - Vedalardagi so'nggi bilim segmenti yoki jnānakāṇḍa (bilimlar bo'limi). Vedanta Uttara-Mimamsa deb ham yuritiladi. Vedanta oqimining dominant oqimi bo'lib qoldi Hinduizm O'rta asrlardan keyingi davrda.

Nasika

Shuningdek qarang: Buddist falsafasi va Jain falsafasi

Vedalar vakolatini qabul qilmaydigan maktablar nastika falsafasi bo'lib, ulardan to'rttasi nastika (heterodoks) maktablari taniqli:[7]

  1. Karvaka, iroda mavjudligini qabul qilgan materializm maktabi.[28][29]
  2. Ājīvika, iroda mavjudligini inkor etgan materializm maktabi.[30][31]
  3. Buddizm, mavjudligini inkor qiladigan falsafa otman (jon, o'zini)[32] va ta'limotlari va ma'rifatiga asoslanadi Gautama Budda.
  4. Jaynizm, Otman (jon, o'zlik) mavjudligini qabul qiladigan va nomi bilan tanilgan yigirma to'rt o'qituvchining ta'limoti va ma'rifatiga asoslangan falsafa. tirthankaras, bilan Rishabha birinchi va Mahavira yigirma to'rtinchi sifatida.[33]

Boshqa maktablar

Asosiy pravoslav va pravoslav maktablaridan tashqari, g'oyalarni birlashtirgan va o'zlarining yangilarini kiritgan sintetik sub-maktablar mavjud edi. O'rta asr olimi Vidyaranya (Milodiy 1238-1317)[iqtibos kerak], "Sarva-Darshana-Samgraha" kitobida buddizm bilan bir qatorda quyidagilarni o'z ichiga oladi[34] va jaynizm,[35] hind falsafasining kichik maktablari sifatida:

Yuqoridagi kichik maktablar hind falsafasining pravoslav maktablaridan Nyaya realizmi, Vaynejika tabiati, monizm va O'zini bilish (Atman) kabi tushunchalarni qabul qilishda o'z g'oyalarini joriy qildilar. astsizm va teistik g'oyalar elementlari.[13] Ba'zi bir kichik maktablar tantrik g'oyalarini ba'zi buddaviy an'analarida mavjud bo'lgan fikrlar bilan bo'lishadilar.[16]

Xususiyatlari

MaktabSamxyaYogaNyayaVaysekikaMmṃsāAdvaita Vedanta[N 1]Vishishtadvaita Vedanta[N 1]Dvaita Vedanta[N 1]Achintya Bheda AbhedaPashupataShaiva SiddhantaKashmir shayvizmiRasevaraPokini DarśanaAkshar-Purushottam Darśana
Tasnifiratsionalizm,[45][46] dualizm,dualizm, ma'naviy amaliyotrealizm,[47] mantiq, analitik falsafatabiiylik,[48] atomizmsharh, filologiya, marosimdualizm emas, panteizmmalakali dualizm emas, panteizmdualizm, ilohiyotbir vaqtda dualizm emas va dualizmteizm, ma'naviy amaliyotTavhidteistik dualizm emas, idealizmalkimyotilshunoslik, til falsafasimalakali dualizm emas, panantizm
FaylasuflarKapila, Ivarakṛṣṇa, Vakaspati Miśra, Guaratna Ko'proq..Patanjali, Yajnavalkya, Vyasa[N 2]Aksapada Gautama, Vatsyāyana, Udayana, Jayanta Bxatta Ko'proq..Kanada, Praśastapāda, Sridhara's Nyāyakandalī Ko'proq..Jaymi, Kumarila Baxa, Prabxakara Ko'proq..Gaudapada, Adi Shankara, Madhusudana Sarasvati, Vidyaranya Ko'proq..Yamunacharya, Ramanuja Ko'proq..Madhvacharya, Jayatirta, Vyasatirta, Raghavendra svamiChaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vrindavananing oltita gosvami, Visvanata Chakravarti, Krishnadasa Kaviraja, Baladeva Vidyabxushana, Rupa Gosvami, Ko'proq..Xaradattacharya, LakulishTirumular, Maykandadevar, Appayya Dikshita, Sadyojyoti, AghorasivaVasugupta, Abhinavagupta, JayarataGovinda Bhagavat, Sarvajña RamevvaraPokini, Bxartari, KatayanaBagvon Svaminarayan, Shastriji Maharaj, Bhadreshdas Swami
MatnlarSamxyapravachana sutra, Samxyakarika, Sāṁkhya tattvakaumudī Ko'proq..Yoga sutralari, Yoga Yajnavalkya, Samkhya pravacana bhasyaNyaya Sitras, Nyāya Bhāṣya, Nyāya Vārttika Ko'proq..Vaiśika Sūtra, Padārtha dharma saṁgraha, Daśapadārta śāstra Ko'proq..Purva Mimamsa Sutras, Mimamsasutra bhāshyam Ko'proq..Braxma sutralari, Prastanatrayi, Avadxuta Gita, Ashtavakra Gita, Pañadaśī Ko'proq..Siddxitrayam, Shri Bxasya, Vedartha SangrahaAnuVyakhana, Brahma Sutra Bahshya, Sarva Shāstrātha Sangraha, Tattva prakashika, Nyaya Sudha, Nyayamruta, Tarka Tandava, DwaitaDyumaniBhagavata Purana, Bhagavad Gita, Sat Sandarbhas, Govinda Bxashya, Chaitanya Charitamrita,Gaṇakārikā, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā, Ráikikara bshāshyaSivagamalar, Tirumurais, Meikanda SastrasVasugupta shiva sutralari, TantralokaRasarṇava, Rasahṛidaya, Raseśvara siddhāntaVakyapadiya, Mahabxashya, VārttikakāraSwaminarayan Bhashyam, Swaminarayan-Siddhanta-Sudha
Tushunchalar paydo bo'ldiPurusha, Praketi, Guṇa, SatkaryavadaYama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyaxara, Daraṇā, Dhyana, SamadhiPratyakṣa, Anumana, Upamana, Anyathakyati vada, Niḥśreyasa Ko'proq..Padarta, Dravya, Somaniya, Vishnea, Samavaya, ParamāuApauruseyatva, Arthāpatti, Anuapalabdhi, Satahprāmāṇya vadaJivanmukta, Mahavakyas, Sadhana Chatuṣṭaya, haqiqatning uchta buyrug'i, VivartavadaXita, Antarviya, Bahuvyapi Ko'proq..Prapacha, Mukti-yogyas, Nitya-samsarinlar, Tamo-yogyasSambandha, Abxideya, Prayojana (Aloqalar, jarayon, yakuniy maqsad)Pashupati, sakkiz beshlikCharya, Mantramarga, Rodha ChaktiCiti, Mala, Upaya, Anuttara, Aham, SvatantryaParada, uchta rejim simobSphoṭa, AshtadhyayiAkshar Purushottam Upasana
  1. ^ a b v Advaita, Vishishtadvaita va Dvaita yoshi ulg'ayganidan rivojlangan Vedanta maktab va ularning barchasi qabul qiladi Upanishadlar va Braxma sutralari standart matnlar sifatida.
  2. ^ Vyasa Yoga sutralariga Samxyapravakanabhasya deb nomlangan sharh yozgan. (Radxankrishnan, Hind falsafasi, London, Jorj Allen va Unvin Ltd., 1971 yil nashr, II jild, 344-bet).

Umumiy nuqtai

Epistemologiya

Asosiy maqola: Pramana

Epistemologiya deyiladi pramāṇa.[49] Bu qadim zamonlardan beri hinduizmda asosiy, juda ko'p munozarali tadqiqot sohasi bo'lgan. Pramāṇa hindu bilimlar nazariyasidir va odamlar aniq bilimlarga ega bo'lishlari uchun asosli vositalarni muhokama qiladi.[49] "Pramāṇa" ning asosiy yo'nalishi - bu qanday qilib to'g'ri bilimga ega bo'lish, uni qanday qilib bilish, qanday qilib bilmaslik va kimdir yoki biron bir narsaga tegishli bilimni qay darajada olish.[20]

Qadimgi va o'rta asrlardagi hind matnlari oltita pramani aniq bilim va haqiqatning to'g'ri vositasi deb biladi:

  1. Pratyakṣa - to'g'ridan-to'g'ri idrok
  2. Anumāṇa - xulosa qilish yoki bilvosita idrok etish
  3. Upamāṇa - taqqoslash va taqqoslash
  4. Arthapatti - Postulat, holatlardan kelib chiqish
  5. Anupalabdi - idrok etmaslik, isbotning yo'qligi
  6. Shabda - o'tgan yoki hozirgi ishonchli mutaxassislarning so'zlari, guvohliklari[50]

Ularning har biri har xil maktablar tomonidan shartlilik, to'liqlik, ishonch va xato ehtimoli bo'yicha toifalarga bo'linadi. Maktablar ushbu oltitadan qanchasi haqiqiy bilim yo'llari ekanligiga qarab farq qiladi.[21] Masalan, Karvaka nāstika falsafasi faqat bittasi (idrok) epistemik jihatdan ishonchli bilim vositasi,[51] The Samxya maktab uchta (idrok, xulosa va guvohlik),[51] Mmisa va Advaita maktablari oltitasi epistemik jihatdan foydali va ishonchli bilim vositasi deb hisoblashadi.[51][52]

Samxya

Asosiy maqola: Samxya

Samxya pravoslav falsafiy tizimlarning eng qadimiyidir Hinduizm,[53] miloddan avvalgi 1 ming yillikda kelib chiqishi bilan.[54] Bu ratsionalist maktabi Hind falsafasi,[45] va hind falsafasining boshqa maktablariga kuchli ta'sir ko'rsatdi.[55] Samxya - bu sanab chiquvchi falsafa epistemologiya oltitadan uchtasini qabul qildi pramaskalar bilim olishning yagona ishonchli vositasi sifatida. Bular edi pratyakṣa (idrok), anumāṇa (xulosa) va sabda (Ptavakana, ishonchli manbalarning so'zi / guvohligi).[56][51]

Samxiya maktabining turmush o'rtoqlari dualizm ong va materiya o'rtasida.[57] U olamni ikkita haqiqatdan iborat deb hisoblaydi: Puruṣa (ong) va prakriti (materiya). Jiva (tirik mavjudot) bu holat puruṣa bilan bog'langan prakriti qandaydir shaklda.[58] Ushbu birlashma, Samxiya olimlarining ta'kidlashicha, paydo bo'lishiga olib keldi buddi (xabardorlik, aql) va ohankara (shaxsiylashtirilgan ong, "men yaratuvchi"). Ushbu maktab tomonidan koinot Purusa-Prakriti sub'ektlari tomonidan yaratilgan, turli xil permutatsiyalar va turli xil sanab o'tilgan elementlar, hislar, hislar, faoliyat va aqlning kombinatsiyalari bilan singdirilgan deb ta'riflanadi.[58]

Samxya falsafasi nazariyasini o'z ichiga oladi gunalar (fazilatlar, tug'ma tendentsiyalar, psixika).[59] Guna, deyiladi uch xil: Sattva yaxshi, rahmdil, nurli, ijobiy va konstruktiv bo'lish; Rajalar guna - faollik, xaotik, ehtirosli, dürtüsel, yaxshi yoki yomon; va Tamas zulmat, jaholat, buzg'unchi, sustlik, salbiy sifat. Samxya olimlarining ta'kidlashicha, hamma narsa, barcha hayot shakllari va odamlar gunalar, lekin turli xil nisbatlarda.[60] Bularning o'zaro aloqasi gunalar kimdir yoki nimadir, tabiatning xarakterini belgilaydi va hayot taraqqiyotini belgilaydi.[61][62] Samxya qalblarning plyuralizmini nazarda tutadi (Jeevatmas) ongga ega bo'lganlar.[63] Samxya tarixiy jihatdan teistik yoki g'ayritabiiy bo'lgan va Xudoga nisbatan o'ziga xos qarashlari haqida munozaralar bo'lgan. [64][65][66][67]

The Samxya karika, hind falsafasi maktabining asosiy matnlaridan biri, "uch" bo'lishini aytib, ochiladi[68] inson azob-uqubatlari turlari "va ularni oldini olish uchun vositalar[69] Keyin matn o'z epistemologiya, metafizika, aksiologiya va soteriologiya bo'yicha nazariyalarining distillashini taqdim etadi. Masalan, unda,

Azob-uqubatlarning uchburchagidan kelib chiqib, uning oldini olish uchun ushbu so'rov paydo bo'ladi.
Bu foydasiz - agar shunday deb aytsangiz, men aytaman: Yo'q, chunki azob chekish mutlaq va yakuniy emas. - 1-oyat

The Guas (fazilatlar) navbati bilan zavq, og'riq va xiralikdan iborat bo'lib, namoyon bo'lish, faollik va cheklovga moslashgan; o'zaro hukmronlik qiluvchi, bir-birlariga suyanadigan, bir-birlarini ishlab chiqaradigan, birlashadigan va o'zaro mavjud bo'lgan. - 12-oyat
Yaxshilik engillashtiruvchi va ma'rifatli deb hisoblanadi; qo'pollik, shoshilinch va qat'iyatli; zulmat, og'ir va o'ralgan. Chiroq singari, ular qarama-qarshiliklar birlashmasi bilan bir maqsadda hamkorlik qilishadi. - 13-oyat

Tarqoq bo'lgan umumiy sabab bor. U uchta fazilat yordamida, aralashma bilan, modifikatsiya qilish orqali ishlaydi; chunki turli xil narsalar mos ravishda bir nechta fazilatlar ta'sirida diversifikatsiya qilinadi. - 16-oyat
Qabul qilinadigan ob'ektlarni yig'ish foydalanishga mo'ljallanganligi sababli (inson tomonidan); Uch xususiyatga ega bo'lgan narsaning teskari tomoni boshqa xususiyatlarga ega bo'lishi kerak (odamda); Boshliq bo'lishi kerak ekan (odam ichida); Chunki (odam ichida) zavqlanadigan biron bir mavjudot bo'lishi kerak; Abstraktsiyaga moyilligi (odamda) bo'lgani uchun, ruh ham shundaydir. - 17-oyat

— Samxya karika, [69][70]

Samxiyadagi soteriologiya Puruenani Prakritidan farqli ravishda amalga oshirishga qaratilgan; Ushbu ma'lumot O'zi transmigratsiyani tugatish va mutlaq erkinlikka olib kelish uchun o'tkaziladi (kaivalya).[71]

Yoga

Asosiy maqola: Yoga (falsafa)

Yilda Hind falsafasi, Yoga, boshqa narsalar qatori, astika falsafiy maktablarining oltitasining nomi.[72] The Yoga falsafiy tizim bilan chambarchas mos keladi dualist binolari Samxya maktab.[73][74] Yoga maktabi Samxya psixologiyasi va metafizikasini qabul qiladi, ammo diniy deb hisoblanadi, chunki u shaxsiy xudo tushunchasini qabul qiladi (Ishvara), Samxyadan farqli o'laroq.[75][76][77] The epistemologiya Yoga maktabining Samkhya maktabi singari ishonchli bilim olish vositasi sifatida oltita promasaga tayanadi:[51] pratyakṣa (idrok), anumāṇa (xulosa) va daabda (aptavakana, ishonchli manbalarning so'zi / guvohligi).[52][51]

Yoga maktabida koinot ikkilik sifatida tasavvur qilinadi: puruṣa (ong) va prakti (materiya); ammo, yoga maktabi ushbu kontseptsiyani Samxya maktabiga qaraganda ko'proq "ko'ruvchi, tajribali" va "ko'rilgan, tajribali" deb umumiyroq muhokama qiladi.[78]

Yoga maktabining asosiy matni bu Patanjalining yoga sutralari. Patanjali bo'lishi mumkin edi, kabi Maks Myuller "Yoga falsafasining muallifi yoki vakili, albatta, Sutralarning muallifi bo'lmasdan" deb tushuntiradi.[79] Hind falsafasi Yoganing ko'plab turlarini tan oladi, masalan raja yoga, jñāna yoga,[80] karma yoga, bhakti yoga, tantra yoga, mantrani yoga, laya yogava xata yoga.[81]

Yoga maktabi Samxya maktab nazariyasiga asoslanadi jnāna (bilim) moksha uchun etarli vosita. Bu Samxyaning bilimga bo'lgan yondashuvi bilan birlashtirilgan tizimli texnika / amaliyot (shaxsiy tajriba) mokshaga olib boradigan yo'l ekanligini ko'rsatadi.[73] Yoga Advaita Vedanta bilan bir qator markaziy g'oyalarni baham ko'radi, shundan farqli o'laroq, Yoga eksperimental tasavvufning bir turi, Advaita Vedanta esa monistik shaxsiylik.[82][83][84] Advaita Vedanta singari, hind falsafasining yoga maktabi bu hayotda ozodlik / erkinlikka erishish mumkin, va bu shaxs Atman (jon, o'zlik) va Braxmanning ekvivalentligini to'liq anglagan va anglagan holda sodir bo'ladi, deb hisoblaydi.[85][86]

Vaysekika

Asosiy maqola: Vaisheshika

Vayexika falsafasi - bu tabiatshunos maktab.[48] Bu shakl atomizm tabiiy falsafada.[87] Jismoniy koinotdagi barcha narsalar kamaytirilishi mumkinligi haqidagi postulat paramau (atomlar) va o'z tajribalari moddaning o'zaro ta'siridan (atomlarning funktsiyasi, ularning soni va ularning fazoviy joylashuvi), sifat, faollik, umumiylik, o'ziga xoslik va tabiatdan kelib chiqadi.[88] Vayrenka maktabiga ko'ra, bilim va ozodlikka dunyo tajribasini to'liq anglash orqali erishish mumkin.[88] Vayśika darśana hisoblangan Kaṇada Kaśyapa miloddan avvalgi birinchi ming yillikning ikkinchi yarmidan boshlab.[88][89] Asosiy matn, Vaiśika Sūtra, quyidagicha ochiladi:

Dharma - bu yuksaklikka erishish va oliy ezgulikka erishishdir. Vedaning obro'liligi uning ekspozitsiyasi bo'lishidan kelib chiqadi dharma. Oliy Yaxshi narsa ma'lum narsadan hosil bo'lgan bilimdan kelib chiqadi dharma, ularning o'xshashliklari va farqlari orqali Bashoratlar, modda, xususiyat, harakat, tur, tur va kombinatsiyaning mohiyati.

— Vayśṣika Sūtra 1.1.1-1.1.4, [90]

Vayessika maktabi Nyaya maktabi bilan bog'liq, ammo uning farqlari mavjud epistemologiya, metafizika va ontologiya.[91] Vayśika maktabining epistemologiyasi, shunga o'xshash Buddizm, bilim uchun faqat ikkita vositani ishonchli - idrok va xulosa qabul qildi.[52][92] Vaynesika maktabi va buddizm o'zlarining muqaddas yozuvlarini bilim uchun shubhasiz va to'g'ri vosita deb hisoblashadi, farqi shundaki, Vayśikas tomonidan ishonchli va ishonchli manba deb hisoblangan Vedalar.[52][93]

Vayexika metafizik binolari atomizmning bir shakliga asoslangan bo'lib, voqelik to'rtta moddadan (er, suv, havo va olov) iborat. Ushbu to'rtlikning har biri ikki xil:[87] atom (paramāṇu) va aralash. Atom, Vayshika olimlarining fikriga ko'ra, buzilmas (anitya), bo'linmas va "kichik" (aṇu) deb nomlangan o'lchovning o'ziga xos turiga ega. Ushbu falsafada kompozitsion atomlarga bo'linadigan har qanday narsa deb ta'riflanadi. Odamlar nimani idrok etsa, u kompozitdir, atomlar esa ko'rinmas.[87] Vayshikalar kattaligi, shakli, haqiqatlari va butun insoniyat boshidan kechiradigan barcha narsalar atomlarning funktsiyasi, ularning soni va ularning fazoviy joylashuvi, ularning guṇa (sifat), karma (faoliyat), somoniya (umumiylik), viśeṣa (o'ziga xoslik) va amavaya (vorislik, hamma narsaning ajralmas bog'liqligi).[88][94]

Nyaya

Asosiy maqola: Nyaya

Nyaya maktabi a realist astika falsafasi.[95][96] Maktabning hind falsafasiga qo'shgan eng muhim hissasi uning nazariyasini muntazam ravishda rivojlantirganligidir mantiq, metodologiya va uning epistemologiya haqidagi risolalari.[97][98] Nyaya maktabining asosiy matni Nyaya Sitras miloddan avvalgi birinchi ming yillik. Matn Aksapada Gautamaga tegishli bo'lib, uning tarkibi miloddan avvalgi VI-II asrlarda har xil sanaladi.[99][89]

Nyāya epistemologiyasi oltidan to'rttasini qabul qiladi pramasalar bilim olishning ishonchli vositasi sifatida - pratyakṣa (idrok), anumāṇa (xulosa), upamāṇa (taqqoslash va taqqoslash) va daabda (o'tmishdagi yoki hozirgi ishonchli mutaxassislarning so'zlari, guvohliklari).[51][100][50]

Unda metafizika, Nyayya maktabi boshqalarnikiga qaraganda Vaynesika maktabiga yaqinroq.[95] Odamlarning azoblanishi noto'g'ri bilimlar (tushunchalar va jaholat) ostida faoliyat natijasida yuzaga keladigan xatolar / nuqsonlar natijasida kelib chiqadi, deb hisoblaydi.[101] Moksha (ozodlik), deyiladi to'g'ri bilim orqali. Ushbu shart Nyayani o'zini epistemologiya, ya'ni to'g'ri bilim olish va noto'g'ri tushunchalarni olib tashlash uchun ishonchli vosita bilan shug'ullanishga undadi. Soxta bilim nafaqat Nayayikalar uchun johillikdir; u aldanishni o'z ichiga oladi. To'g'ri bilim - bu o'z xayollarini kashf etish va ularni engish, qalbning asl mohiyatini, o'zini va haqiqatini anglashdir.[102] Nyaya Sitrasasi boshlanadi:

Idrok, xulosa, taqqoslash va so'z - bu to'g'ri bilim vositasidir.
Sezgi - bu hissiyotning ob'ekti bilan aloqa qilishidan kelib chiqadigan va qat'iyatli, noma'lum va tartibsiz bo'lgan bilimdir.
Xulosa - bu idrok etishdan oldin paydo bo'lgan va uch xil: apriori, posteriori va odatda ko'rinadigan bilimdir.
Taqqoslash - bu narsa haqida ilgari ma'lum bo'lgan boshqa narsaga o'xshashligi orqali bilim.
So'z - ishonchli odamning ibratli fikri.
U [bilim] ikki xil: ko'ringan va ko'rinmaydigan.
Ruh, tana, hislar, hislar ob'ektlari, aql, aql, faoliyat, ayb, transmigratsiya, meva, azob va ozodlik - to'g'ri bilim ob'ektlari.

— Nyāya Sūtras 1.1.3-1.1.9, [103]

Mmṃsā

Asosiy maqola: Mmṃsā

The Mmṃsā maktab ta'kidladi germenevtika va sharh.[104][105] Bu shakl falsafiy realizm.[106] Mmṃsa maktabining asosiy matnlari quyidagilardir Purva Mimamsa Sutras ning Jaymi.[107][108] Ba'zan mumtoz mumtoz maktabi deb yuritiladi pirvamīmāṃsā yoki Karmamīmāssā Vedalarning birinchi qismiga nisbatan.[107]

Mmṃssa maktabi epistemologiya tomonidan belgilangan bir nechta kichik maktablarga ega. The Prabhakara Moma'sa maktabida epistimetik jihatdan ishonchli bilimga ega bo'lishning beshta vositasi qabul qilindi: pratyakṣa (idrok), anumāṇa (xulosa), upamāṇa (taqqoslash va taqqoslash), artapatti (postulyatsiya, holatlardan kelib chiqish), va daabda (so'z, o'tgan yoki hozirgi ishonchli mutaxassislarning guvohliklari).[100][50] The Kumarila Baxa Mmṃssa kichik maktabi o'zining ishonchli epistemologiyasi kanoniga bilishning oltinchi usulini qo'shdi: anupalabdi (idrok etmaslik, salbiy / kognitiv dalil).[51]

Mmṃssa maktabining metafizikasi ikkalasidan iborat ateist va teistik ta'limotlar va maktab Xudoning mavjudligini muntazam tekshirishga unchalik qiziqish bildirmadi. Aksincha, ruh abadiy, hamma joyda mavjud, tabiatan faol bo'lgan ma'naviy mohiyat, deb hisoblaydi, so'ngra epistemologiya va metafizikaga e'tibor qaratadi. dharma.[107][109][110] Ularga, dharma marosimlar va vazifalarni anglatardi, emas devas (xudolar), chunki devalar faqat nom bilan mavjud bo'lgan.[107] Momsakalar, deb hisoblashgan Vedalar "abadiy muallifsiz xatosiz", Vedik vidhi (buyruqlar) va mantralar marosimlarda ko'rsatma mavjud karya (harakatlar) va marosimlar birinchi darajali ahamiyatga ega va loyiqdir. Ular ko'rib chiqdilar Upanishadlar va o'z-o'zini bilish va ma'naviyat bilan bog'liq boshqa matnlar ikkinchi darajali ahamiyatga ega, bu falsafiy qarash Vedanta maktab bilan kelishmagan.[104][107]

Mmṃṃsā o'rganishni keltirib chiqardi filologiya va til falsafasi.[111] Ularning tilni chuqur tahlillari paytida va tilshunoslik boshqa maktablarga ta'sir ko'rsatdi,[112] ularning qarashlari boshqalar tomonidan baham ko'rilmadi. Mmṃsākas tilning maqsadi va qudratini aniq deb bilgan tayinlash to'g'ri, to'g'ri va to'g'ri. Aksincha, Vedantins tilning ko'lami va qiymatini vosita sifatida kengaytirdi tasvirlab bering, rivojlantirish va hosil qilmoq.[107] Mmṃsākas tartibli, qonunga asoslangan, protsessual hayotni asosiy maqsad va eng ezgu ehtiyoj deb bilgan. dharma va jamiyat va ilohiy (teistik) rizq shu maqsadni anglatadi. Mimamsa maktabi Vedanta maktabi uchun ta'sirchan va asosli bo'lgan, bu farq Mmāssa tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan va ta'kidlangan. karmakāṇḍa (qismi utruti marosimlar va qurbonlik marosimlari, Vedalarning dastlabki qismlari bilan bog'liq), Vedanta maktabi rivojlangan va ta'kidlangan jnānakāṇḍa (Vedalarning monizm haqidagi bilimlarga taalluqli qismi, Vedalarning keyingi qismlari).[104]

Vedanta

The Vedanta Upanishadalar ta'limoti asosida qurilgan maktab Braxma sutralari miloddan avvalgi birinchi ming yillikdan[89][113] va hind maktablari orasida eng rivojlangan va eng taniqli hisoblanadi. Vedantinlarning epistemologiyasi, maktabga qarab, har qanday bilim shaklini olishning to'g'ri va ishonchli vositasi sifatida besh yoki oltita usulni o'z ichiga olgan:[93] pratyakṣa (idrok), anumāṇa (xulosa), upamāṇa (taqqoslash va taqqoslash), artapatti (postulat, holatlardan kelib chiqish), anupalabdi (idrok etmaslik, salbiy / kognitiv dalil) va daabda (o'tmishdagi yoki hozirgi ishonchli mutaxassislarning so'zlari, guvohliklari).[52][51][50] Bularning barchasi Vedantaning har bir kichik maktabi tomonidan shartlilik, to'liqlik, ishonch va xato ehtimoli bo'yicha toifalarga ajratilgan.[93]

Vedanta maktabining paydo bo'lishi ko'proq bilimga asoslangan tushuncha paydo bo'la boshlagan davrni anglatadi. Bularga e'tibor qaratildi jnana (bilim) ga asoslangan jihatlar Vedik din va Upanishadalar. Bu atman va kabi metafizik tushunchalarni o'z ichiga olgan Braxmanva marosimlarga emas, balki meditatsiya, o'zini o'zi boshqarish, o'zini o'zi bilish va mavhum ma'naviyatga e'tibor. Upanishadlar qadimgi va o'rta asrlar davridagi Vedanta olimlari tomonidan turlicha talqin qilingan. Binobarin, Vedanta teoistik dualizmdan g'ayritistik monizmgacha bo'lgan ko'plab kichik maktablarga ajralib chiqdi, ularning har biri matnlarni o'ziga xos tarzda talqin qilib, o'zlarining sub-sharhlarini ishlab chiqdilar.[114][115]

Advaita

Asosiy maqola: Advaita Vedanta

Advaita so'zma-so'z "ikki emas, yagona, birlik" degan ma'noni anglatadi. Bu Vedantaning kichik maktabidir va ma'naviy va universal dualizmni tasdiqlaydi.[116][117] Uning metafizikasi mutlaqning bir shakli monizm, bu yakuniy haqiqat bir-biriga bog'liq bo'lgan birlikdir.[118][119] Bu eng qadimgi va eng tan olingan Vedantik maktab. Ushbu maktabning asosiy matnlari quyidagilardir Braxma sutralari va erta Upanishadlar miloddan avvalgi 1-ming yillikdan.[118] Uning birinchi buyuk konsolidatori VIII asrning olimi edi Adi Shankara, Upanishadik o'qituvchilar va uning o'qituvchisi o'qituvchisi fikrlarini davom ettirgan Gaudapada. U yirik Vedantik yozuvlarga keng sharhlar yozgan va hozirgi hind tafakkurining asosiy oqimlari asosidagi hindu faylasuflaridan biri sifatida nishonlanadi.[120]

Ushbu Vedanta maktabiga ko'ra, barcha haqiqat Braxman bo'lib, mavjud bo'lmagan narsalar mavjud emas Braxman.[121] Uning metafizikasi tushunchasini o'z ichiga oladi maya va otman. Maya "mavjud bo'lgan narsani anglatadi, lekin doimo o'zgarib turadi va shu bilan ma'naviy jihatdan haqiqiy emas".[122] Empirik haqiqat har doim o'zgarib turadigan va shuning uchun "o'tkinchi, to'liqsiz, chalg'ituvchi va ko'rinishda emas" deb hisoblanadi.[123][124][125] Otman tushunchasi har bir insonda, har bir jonzotda ruhdir. Advaita Vedantins otman Braxman bilan bir xil va bu Braxman har bir inson va butun hayot ichida, barcha tirik mavjudotlar ruhiy jihatdan bir-biriga bog'langan va butun borliqda birlik mavjudligini ta'kidlaydi.[126][127] Ular bu ikkilik va tushunmovchilikni qo'llaydilar maya chunki ma'naviy haqiqat johillikdan kelib chiqadi va qayg'u, azob-uqubatlarga sabab bo'ladi. Jīvanmukti (hayot davomida ozodlikka) o'z-o'zini bilish orqali erishish mumkin, otman ichidagi otman boshqa odamdagi otman bilan va butun Brahman bilan bir xil - kosmik printsiplarning abadiy, o'zgarmas, yaxlitligi va haqiqiy haqiqat.[128][127]

Viśiṣṭādvaita

Asosiy maqola: Vishishtadvaita

Ramanuja (taxminan 1037–1137) Viśṣṭdvaita falsafasi yoki malakali dualizmning birinchi tarafdori edi. Viśiādvaita muhim fazilatlar yoki xususiyatlarga ega bo'lgan Oliy mavjudot tushunchasini targ'ib qildi. Viśṣṭdvaitins Advaitinning Braxman kontseptsiyasiga shaxssiz bo'sh birlik sifatida qarshi chiqdi. Ular Braxmanni abadiy birdamlik sifatida, shuningdek, hamma joyda mavjud bo'lgan va mavjudotda faol ishtirok etgan barcha yaratilish manbalari sifatida ko'rishgan. Ular uchun predmet-ob'ektni idrok etish xayoliy va johillik belgisidir. Biroq, shaxsning o'zini anglash tuyg'usi to'liq illyuziya emas edi, chunki u Braxman bo'lgan olamiy borliqdan kelib chiqqan edi.[129] Ramanuja ko'rdi Vishnu Braxmanning o'ziga xos xususiyati sifatida.

Dvaita

Dvaita dagi teistik kichik maktabga ishora qiladi Vedanta hind falsafasining an'anasi.[130][131] Shuningdek, deb nomlangan Tattvavada va Bimbapratibimbavada, Dvaita kichik maktabiga 13-asrning olimi asos solgan Madhvacharya.[130] Dvaita Vedanta maktabi bunga ishonadi Xudo (Vishnu, oliy ruh) va individual ruhlar (juvatman) mustaqil haqiqat sifatida mavjud bo'lib, ular bir-biridan ajralib turadi.[132][133]

Dvaita Vedanta - bu dualistik talqin Vedalar, ikkita alohida voqelikning mavjudligini nazariyalashtirib dualizmni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi.[130] Birinchi va yagona mustaqil haqiqat, deydi Dvaita maktabi, bu Vishnu yoki Brahman.[130] Vishnu eng oliy O'zi, boshqa yirik dinlarda monoteistik Xudoga o'xshash tarzda.[134] Dvaita falsafasining monistikdan farq qiluvchi omili Advaita VedantaXudo shaxsiy rolni bajarishi va koinotni boshqaradigan va boshqaradigan haqiqiy abadiy mavjudot sifatida qaralishi.[135] Yoqdi Vishishtadvaita Vedanta shogirdi, Dvaita falsafasi ham o'z ichiga olgan Vaishnavizm, Vedalardagi Brahmanning metafizik kontseptsiyasi bilan Vishnu va yagona bilan aniqlangan Oliy mavjudot.[136][137] Biroq, yakuniy malakali nondualizmni nazarda tutadigan Vishishtadvaitadan farqli o'laroq, Dvaitaning dualizmi doimiy edi.[133][132]

NajotDvaytada faqatgina Xudo Vishnu inoyati orqali erishish mumkin.[130][138][139]

Dvaitādvaita (Bhedabheda)

Dvaitādvaita tomonidan taklif qilingan Nimbarka, 13-asrda Andhra viloyatidan kelgan Vaishnava faylasufi. Ushbu falsafaga ko'ra borliqning uchta toifasi mavjud: Braxman, ruh va materiya. Ruh va materiya Braxmandan farq qiladi, chunki u Brahmandan farqli xususiyatlar va imkoniyatlarga ega. Braxman mustaqil ravishda mavjud, ruh va materiya esa bog'liqdir. Shunday qilib, ruh va materiya alohida, ammo qaram bo'lgan mavjudlikka ega. Bundan tashqari, Braxman boshqaruvchidir, ruh lazzatlanuvchidir va zavqlanadigan narsa. Bundan tashqari, eng yuqori ibodat ob'ekti Krishna va uning hamrohi Radha, minglab ishtirok etdi gopis; ning Vrindavan; va fidoyilik o'zini taslim qilishdan iborat.

Udduddadayta

Udduddadayta tomonidan ilgari surilgan "mutlaqo dual bo'lmagan" falsafa Vallabha Acharya (1479-1531). Ta'sis etuvchi faylasuf ham Vallabhaning gurusi edi sampradaya ("Vallabh an'anasi") yoki Pusimarga, Vaishnava urf-odati Krishnaga sig'inishga qaratilgan. Vallabxacharya Brahman dunyoni Maya kabi har qanday tashqi agentlik bilan aloqasiz yaratganligini ta'kidlaydi (bu uning kuchi) va dunyo orqali o'zini namoyon qiladi.[140] Shuning uchun Shuddadvaita "O'zgartirilmagan transformatsiya" yoki "Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda" nomi bilan tanilgan. Braxman yoki Ishvara ko'p bo'lishni xohlardi va u individual ruhlar va dunyoning olomoniga aylandi. Jagat yoki Maya soxta yoki xayoliy emas, jismoniy moddiy dunyo. Vallabha Braxmanni butun sifatida va shaxsni uchqun va olov kabi "qism" (lekin baxtdan mahrum) deb tan oladi.[141]

Acintya Bheda Abheda

Asosiy maqola: Achintya Bheda Abheda

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), Xudoning ruhi yoki energiyasi Krishna deb belgilagan Xudodan ajralib turadigan va farq qilmasligini aytdi, Govindava buni tasavvur qilib bo'lmaydigan bo'lsa ham, muhabbatga sadoqat jarayonida boshdan kechirish mumkin (baxti). U Madvachariyaning Dvaita tushunchasiga amal qilgan.[142] Ushbu "aqlga sig'maydigan birlik va farq" falsafasi.

Karvaka

Asosiy maqola: Charvaka

Karvaka maktabi ulardan biri nastika yoki "heterodoks" falsafalari.[143][11][144] Bu g'ayritabiiylikni rad etadi, ta'kidlaydi materializm va falsafiy shubha, empiriklik, idrok va shartli xulosani tegishli bilim manbai sifatida tutish[145][146] Cārvāka - bu ateist fikr maktabi.[147] Unda o'lik hayot ham, qayta tug'ilish ham mavjud emas, borliq faqat atomlar va moddalarning birikmasidir, tuyg'ular va ong epifenomen va iroda mavjud.[28][29]

Bihaspati ba'zan Karvaka (shuningdek, Lokayata deb ataladi) falsafasining asoschisi deb ataladi. Carvaka-ning asosiy adabiyotlarining aksariyati Barhaspatya sutralari (taxminan miloddan avvalgi 600 yil), ammo yo'qolgan yoki yo'qolgan.[147][148] Uning nazariyalari va rivojlanishi tarixiy ikkinchi darajali adabiyotlardan tuzilgan, masalan shastralar, sutralar va Hind epik poeziyasi matnlaridan kabi Buddizm va dan Jayn adabiyoti.[147][149][150] Skeptik faylasuf tomonidan Tattvôpaplava-siṁha Jayarāhi Bhaṭṭa ko'pgina olimlar tomonidan odatiy bo'lmagan Karvaka matni sifatida ko'rib chiqilgan.[151]

Karvaka falsafasining keng o'rganilgan tamoyillaridan biri uni rad etish edi xulosa haqiqiy, universal bilimlarni o'rnatish vositasi sifatida va metafizik haqiqatlar.[152] Boshqacha qilib aytganda, Karvaka epistemologiyasida ta'kidlanishicha, qachondir biron bir mushohadalar yoki haqiqatlar to'plamidan haqiqat kiritilsa, shubhani tan olish kerak; xulosa qilingan bilimlar shartli hisoblanadi.[153]

Shaivizm

Qismi bir qator kuni
Shaivizm
SaivismFlag.svg

Shaivizmning dastlabki tarixini aniqlash qiyin.[154] Biroq, Śvetāvvatara Upanishad (Miloddan avvalgi 400 - 200)[155] shayizmning sistematik falsafasining dastlabki matn ekspozitsiyasi deb hisoblanadi.[156] Shaivizm turli xil falsafiy maktablar, shu jumladan dualistik (abheda), dualist (bheda) va dualist bo'lmagan-dualist (bhedābheda) istiqbollari. Vidyaranya o'z asarlarida Shaiva o'ylagan uchta asosiy maktabni eslatib o'tgan.Pashupata shayvizmi, Shaiva Siddhanta va Pratyabxijna (Kashmir shayvizmi).[157]

Pokupata shaivizm

Pokupata shaivizmi (Pokupata, "Paupati") - bu Shaiva maktablarining eng qadimiysi.[158] Pashupata mazhabining falsafasi tomonidan tizimlashtirildi Lakulish milodiy II asrda. Paśu yilda Paupati effektni (yoki yaratilgan dunyoni) nazarda tutadi, bu so'z yashirin narsaga bog'liqligini belgilaydi. Holbuki, Pati sabab (yoki printsip) degan ma'noni anglatadi, bu so'z olamning sababi, sabr-toqat yoki hukmdor bo'lgan Rabbiyni belgilaydi.[159] Pashupatalar ruhlarning Oliy mavjudotga xizmat qilish doktrinasi bilan mashhur bo'lgan Vaishnava ilohiyotini rad etishdi, chunki har qanday narsaga bog'liqlik og'riqni to'xtatish vositasi va boshqa kerakli maqsadlar bo'lishi mumkin emas edi. Ular boshqalarga bog'liq bo'lganlar va mustaqillikka intilganlar ozod qilinmasligini angladilar, chunki ular hali ham o'zlaridan boshqa narsaga bog'liq. Pokupatasning so'zlariga ko'ra, ruh "har qanday og'riq mikrobidan" xalos bo'lgach, Oliy Xudoning xususiyatlariga ega bo'ladi.[160]

Pokupatas yaratilgan dunyoni itoatkor va sezgirga ajratdi. Bo'ysunuvchi ongsiz edi va shu bilan sezgir yoki ongliga bog'liq edi. Bo'ysunuvchi qo'shimcha ta'sir va sabablarga bo'lingan. Effektlar o'n turga ega edi, er, to'rt element va ularning fazilatlari, rangi va hk. sabablari o'n uchta turdan iborat edi: beshta bilish organi, beshta harakat organi, uchta ichki organ, aql, ego printsipi va bilish printsipi. Ushbu g'ayritabiiy sabablar "Men" ni "o'zlik" bilan noaniq identifikatsiyalash uchun javobgar edi. Pokupatadagi najot ruhning Xudo bilan aql bilan birlashishini o'z ichiga oladi.[161]

Shaiva Siddhanta

Normativ hisoblanadi Tantrik Shaivizm, Shaiva Siddhanta[162][163] Tantrik shayvizmning me'yoriy marosimlari, kosmologiyasi va teologik toifalarini taqdim etadi.[164] Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace).[165] This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the Nayanlar.[166]

Kashmir shayvizmi

Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighth[167] or ninth century CE[168] yilda Kashmir and made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the end of the twelfth century CE.[169] It is categorised by various scholars as monistik[170] idealizm (mutlaq idealizm, theistic monism, realistic idealism,[171] transcendental physicalism or concrete monism[171]). It is a school of Śaivism iborat Trika and its philosophical articulation Pratyabhijña.[172]

Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit yoki Braxman),[173] in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness.[174] This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world (Śakti) is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness (Chit).[175] Whereas, Advaita holds that Brahman is the reality (pure consciousness) and it is inactive (niṣkriya) and the phenomenal world is an appearance (maya).[176] The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.[177]

Shuningdek qarang

Izohlar

  1. ^ M Chadha (2015), in The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, states that Vedas were knowledge source but interpreted differently by different schools of Hindu philosophy: "The sacred texts of the Hindus, the Vedas, are variously interpreted by the six traditional Hindu philosophical schools. Even within a single school, philosophers disagree on the import of Vedic statements. (...) Hindu intellectual traditions must be understood as standing for the collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection. There is no single, comprehensive philosophical doctrine shared by all intellectual traditions in Hinduism that distinguishes their view from other Indian religions such as Buddizm yoki Jaynizm on issues of epistemology, metaphysics, logic, ethics or cosmology. The Vedas are regarded as Apauruseya, but by the same token, they are not the Word of God either.[5]
  2. ^ Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not deontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as an epistemik authority by an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy;[6] (Note: This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions)
  3. ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453–487.

Adabiyotlar

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    Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism, Skepticism, and Humanism, ISBN 978-1591022992, page 84;
    For a general discussion of Cārvāka and other atheistic traditions within Hindu philosophy, see Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199644650, pages 367-378
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Bibliografiya

Qo'shimcha o'qish

  • Radxakrishnan, Sarvepalli; va Mur, Charlz A. Hind falsafasidagi manbaviy kitob. Prinston universiteti matbuoti; 1957 yil. Prinston qog'ozi, 12-nashr, 1989 y. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
  • Rambachan, Anantanand. "Advaita dunyoqarashi: Xudo, dunyo va insoniyat". 2006 yil.
  • Zilberman, Devid B., Hind tafakkurida ma'no tug'ilishi. D. Reidel nashriyot kompaniyasi, Dordrext, Gollandiya, 1988 yil. ISBN 90-277-2497-0. 1-bob. "Hindiston tafakkur tizimlari epistemik fanlar sifatida".

Tashqi havolalar

  • Bilan bog'liq ommaviy axborot vositalari Hind falsafasi Vikimedia Commons-da