WikiDer > Massachusett tili

Taklif qilingan Massachusett shevalari bo'lishi birlashtirildi ushbu maqolada. (Muhokama qiling) 2020 yil oktyabridan beri taklif qilingan.

Ushbu maqola mumkin talab qilish tozalamoq Vikipediya bilan tanishish uchun sifat standartlari. Muayyan muammo: Ingliz tilidan tashqari so'zlarni {{bilan etiketlash keraklang}} izchil formatlash, ekran o'quvchilari va avtomatlashtirilgan imlo tekshirgichlari uchun. Iltimos yordam bering ushbu maqolani yaxshilang Agar imkoningiz bo'lsa. (2019 yil mart) (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Massachusett
Massachusett unnontꝏwaonk / mahsatʃəw [iː] sat enãtuwaːãk /[1] Wôpanâôtuwâok / wãpanaːãˈtuwaːãk /[2]
Mahalliy	Qo'shma Shtatlar
Mintaqa	Sharqiy Massachusets shtati, janubi-sharqiy Nyu-Xempshir, va shimoliy va janubi-sharqiy Rod-Aylend[3][4]
Etnik kelib chiqishi	Massachusett, Wompanâak (Wampanoag), Pawtucket (Naumkeag, Agavam), Nausetva Coweset. Qo'shni Algonquian xalqlari ikkinchi til sifatida.[5]
Yo'q	19-asr oxiri yo'q bo'lib ketdi.[6][7]
Uyg'onish	1993 yildan boshlab jonlanish. 2014 yilga kelib, 5 nafar bola ona tilida so'zlashadiganlar, 15 nafari ikkinchi darajali tilda so'zlashuvchilar va 500 nafari kattalar uchun ikkinchi tilni o'rganuvchilar.[8][9]
Til oilasi	Algik Algonquian Sharqiy Algonquian Janubiy Yangi Angliya Algonquian Massachusett
Yozish tizimi	Lotin yozuvi
Til kodlari
ISO 639-3	wam
Glottolog	wamp1249[10]
Massachusett / Wampanoag qabilasi va ularning qo'shnilarining joylashishi, v. 1600
Ushbu maqolada mavjud IPA fonetik belgilar. Tegishli bo'lmagan holda qo'llab-quvvatlash, ko'rishingiz mumkin savol belgilari, qutilar yoki boshqa belgilar o'rniga Unicode belgilar. IPA belgilariga oid kirish qo'llanmasi uchun qarang Yordam: IPA.

The Massachusett tili bu Algonquian tili ning Algik tillar oilasi, ilgari sharqiy qirg'oq va janubi-sharqning bir nechta xalqlari tomonidan gapirilgan Massachusets shtati. Qayta tiklangan shaklda, u Wampanoag odamlarining to'rtta jamoasida gaplashadi. Til, shuningdek, sifatida tanilgan Natik yoki Wopanâak (Vampanoag) va tarixiy jihatdan Pokanoket, Hind yoki Nonantum.^[11]

Til savodli hindular jamiyati va diniy matnlarning ushbu tilga tarjimalari soni bilan eng mashhurdir. Jon EliotXristian Injilini 1663 yilda Natik lahjasi yordamida tarjima qilgan Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum Xudo, Amerika qit'asida birinchi bo'lib nashr etilgan, ona tili bo'lmagan kishi tomonidan tarjima qilingan birinchi Muqaddas Kitob va Muqaddas Kitobning ilgari yozilmagan tilga tarjimasining dastlabki namunalaridan biri bo'lgan. Savodli hindistonlik vazirlar va o'qituvchilar elitalar va boshqa jamoalarning a'zolariga savodxonlikni o'rgatishdi, bu keng tarqalgan qabulga ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Bu ko'plab sud murojaatlarida, cherkov yozuvlarida, ibodat qiladigan shahar ma'muriy yozuvlar, kitob chetidagi yozuvlar, shaxsiy xatlar va mustamlakachilik davrida diniy yo'llarning boshqa tarjimalarini keng tarqatish.^[12]

Tilning shevalarida ilgari janubning bir qancha xalqlari gaplashishgan Yangi Angliyajumladan, sharqning barcha qirg'oq va izolyatsion joylari Massachusets shtati, shuningdek janubi-sharqiy Nyu-Xempshir, eng janubiy uchi Meyn va sharqiy Rod-Aylendva bu shuningdek Nyu-Englandning aksariyat qismida va ikkinchi qismlarida keng tarqalgan ikkinchi yoki uchinchi til edi Long Island.^[7] Xristian diniga kirganlarning aralash guruhlar jamoalarida tildan foydalanish -ibodat qiladigan shaharlar- Nipmuc va Pennacookning ayrim guruhlari tomonidan qabul qilinishi natijasida paydo bo'ldi.^[13][14]

Tilni qayta tiklash 1993 yilda boshlangan Jessi Little Doe Baird (o'sha paytda Fermino familiyasi bilan) Wôpanâak tillarini qayta tiklash loyihasini (WLRP) boshladi. Bu Cape Cod va orollarning Wampanoag-ning Aquinnah, Mashpee, Assonet va Herring Pond qabilalariga qayta tiklangan Wampanoag shevasini muvaffaqiyatli qayta kiritdi va bir nechta bolalar ichida birinchi ona tilida so'zlashuvchi bo'lib o'sayotgan bir nechta bolalar bilan. asr.^[15][16] Massachusett aholisi Boston atrofida yashaydi va boshqa Vampanoag qabilalari Keyp Kod va Rod-Aylend bo'ylab joylashgan. Massachusett tilida so'zlashuvchilarning boshqa avlodlariga hozirgi ko'pchilik kiradi Abenaki xalqi va mahalliy aholi Sent-Devid oroli, BermudaKeyinchalik, ularning ajdodlari janubiy Yangi Angliyadan keyingi ko'plab hindularni o'zlariga singdirishgan Qirol Filippning urushi.^[16][17]

Tasnifi

Massachusettning alg tillari ichidagi mavqei

Massachusett mintaqada Sharqiy filiali Algonquian tillaritilida so'zlashadigan barcha ma'lum Algonquian tillarini o'z ichiga oladi Kanadalik dengizchilik janubga qarab Karolinalar tomon. Sharqiy bo'linmalar ichida Massachusett Janubiy Yangi Angliya Algonquian (SNEA) tillari bilan klasterlar. Agar SNEA shevasi deb hisoblansa, bu "N-dialekt" SNEA. Sharqiy tillarning boshqa bo'linmalariga bevosita shimol bilan gaplashadigan abenaki tillari va SNEA mintaqasining g'arbiy va janubi-g'arbiy qismida Delavaran tillari kiradi. Delawaran tillarining janubida Chesapeake ko'rfazi va Potomak daryosi suv havzasining nanticokan tillari, qirg'oq bo'yidagi Virjiniyaning Powhatan tillari va Carolinasning Karolina Algonquian tillari bor. Sharqiy tillar Algonquiandan paydo bo'lgan yagona genetik guruhdir, chunki barcha tillar Proto-Sharqiy Algonquian (PEA) dan kelib chiqadi, bu boshqa Algonquian ma'ruzachilaridan ajratilganligi sababli ajralib turadi, chunki ular katta cho'ntaklar mavjud. Iroquoian va Siuan tillar va Appalachi tog'lari. The Markaziy va Tekisliklarammo, areal xususiyatlariga va geografik yaqinlikka asoslangan guruhlashlardir.

SNEA doirasidagi munosabatlar

SNEA tillari ma'lum darajada o'zaro tushunarli bo'lgan lahjalar zanjiri yoki bog'lanish, o'tish davri navlari ketma-ketligi bilan xiralashgan juda aniq dialektlar orasidagi chegara. SNEA-ning barcha tillari, shu jumladan Massachusett, boshqa Sharqiy filial tillaridan bir nechta umumiy yangiliklar, shu jumladan PEA-ning birlashishi bilan ajralib turishi mumkin *.soat va *xx ichiga *hš, PEA palatizatsiyasi *k SNEA-ga *t^y u PEA dan keyin sodir bo'lgan joy *ē va PAning ba'zi holatlari *men, PEA palatizatsiyasi *sk shunga o'xshash muhitlarda *hč va yakuniy PEA *r birlashish *sh.^[19]

SNEA doirasida Massachusett o'zining yaqin qo'shnilari Narragansett va Nipmuc bilan eng o'xshashligini sharq-g'arbiy bo'linishni ko'rsatadigan bir nechta leksik narsalar bilan bo'lishadi. Masalan, "baliq" so'zi ismlar (namozlar) Massachusettda, ismlar Nipmuc va Narragansettda namaùs, barchasi, ehtimol, shunga o'xshash tarzda talaffuz qilingan / namaːhs / Proto-Algonquian-dan *ism ᐧʔ sa, Mohegan-Pequotdan farqli o'laroq piyamaq va Quiripi operak bu mahalliy poyadan kelib chiqadi *oldin va "baliq" uchun qadimiy muqobil poyasi, *- ᐧ me ᐧ kwa, ehtimol Proto-Western SNEA *pīramākw / piːramaːkʷ /. Nipmuc Massachusettga yaqin bo'lsa-da, u boshqa SNEA tillarida aksariyat muhitlarda qisqartirilgan ko'proq ism va fe'l finallarini saqlab qolishi bilan konservativ hisoblanadi.^[20]

N-lahjasi

Massachusettning boshqa SNEA tillari bilan taqqoslaganda eng aniq xususiyati bu natijadir / n / PEA reflekslarida *ro'zi Proto-Algonquian-ning birlashishi *r va *θ. Massachusett va uning shevalarida doim mavjud / n / va shuning uchun uni SNEA N-dialekt sifatida tasniflash. Bu bo'ladi / j / Narragansett, Sharqiy va G'arbiy Niantik va Mohegan-Pequotlarning Y-dialektlarida, / r / Quiripi va ning R-dialektlarida / l / L-dialektida Nipmuc tilida.^[21]

^1 Faqat kichkintoy bilan "kuchukcha" ko'rinishida paydo bo'ladi, ko'proq tarqalgan so'z naxtiá.
^2 Ehtimol Uilyamsning Koveset lahjasini yozishi.

Sinxop etishmasligi

"Abenakian senkopi" abenaki tillaridan tortib to tarqalib ketgan xususiyatdir MahicanDelawaran tili va dastlabki mustamlakachilik davrida SNEA-ga tarqalishni boshlagan. Bu xususiyat Long-Aylendning Quiripi, Unquachoag, Montauk, Mohegan va Pequot shevalarida majburiy bo'lgan, ko'pincha Nipmucda va ko'pincha Massachusett va Narragansettda yo'q edi. Masalan, Pequotning "Fox Sachem" si so'nggi bosqich ma'ruzachilariga ma'lum bo'lgan Voqlar / wãkʷs / inglizcha "Uncas" nomi esa eski dialektal va oldindan sinxronlashtirilgan bosqich talaffuzini saqlab qolgan bo'lishi mumkin. / [w] ʷkʷehs /, qarang Massachusett vonkiss (voxlar) / wãkʷehs /, ingliz mustamlakachilari kelganida Yangi Angliyada o'tish jarayoni tugallanmaganligini ko'rsatmoqda. Massachusett hujjatlarida paydo bo'lganida, u dialektal xususiyatlarni yoki majburiy vaziyatlarni ko'rsatadigan ko'rinadi, masalan, Massachusett tarjimalarining kuylangan versiyalari Dovudning Zaburlari ichida Massachusee Psalter.^[22]

Sinxoplashga imkon beradigan lahjalarda, odatda o'chirishni o'z ichiga olgan / ə /, / a / va vaqti-vaqti bilan / iː /, odatda so'z oxirida, uzoq unlidan keyin yoki bu unlilarni zaif ta'kidlangan holatlarda o'chirib tashlagan Algonquian stress qoidalari kabi metrik omillar. Massachusettda ba'zi bir sinxronlashtirilgan shakllar mavjud qutilar / kess /, 'kormorant, 'va sqheonk / wəskʷhjᵊãk /, "uning qoni", ammo bu oddiy holatlar bilan taqqoslaganda kamdan-kam holatlardir kuttis (kutuhlar) / katehs / va wusqueheonk (wusqeeheôk) / wəskʷiːhjᵊãk /navbati bilan Eliot tarjimalarida ham uchraydi. Garchi aniq dialektal xususiyat bo'lsa-da, afsuski, hujjatlarning aksariyati mualliflik va geografik kelib chiqishi noma'lum.^[22]

Mahalliy / -at / va boshqalar / -ek /

Massachusdagi kabi lokativ qo'shimchalarva boshqalar'bilan / -at / yoshi kattalarga nisbatan uchdan biriga nisbatida ustunlik qiladi / -ek / Massachusett tilidagi hujjatlarda bu dialektal xususiyat ekanligini ko'rsatuvchi variant. Massachusets shtatidagi Algonquian kelib chiqishi bilan bog'liq joy nomlarida Massachusett innovatsiyasi Massachusett, Pawtucket, Wampanoag va Coweset hududlarining aksariyat qismini qamrab oladi va Narragansett va Nipmucga tarqalib ketganga o'xshaydi. Biroq, Nantucket va Nauset tarixiy jihatdan bo'lgan / -ek /, Nipmucning ko'plab shevalarida bo'lgani kabi va ehtimol Narragansettda ham, ba'zi shevalarda ham bir-birining o'rnini bosadigan bo'lishi ehtimoldan yiroq emas. Natiy aholisining aksariyatick Eliot o'zining tarjimalarida muqobil shakldan foydalanganiga qaramay, asosan eski variantdan foydalangan. Buni Natikning asl ko'chmanchilari Neponse shahrining Massachusett aholisi bo'lganligi bilan izohlash mumkint, ammo qirol Filippning urushidan so'ng, jamiyat shevalari odatda afzal bo'lgan ko'plab Nipmucni jalb qildi / -ek /.^[23]

Eliot ishlaganidek / -at / uning tarjimalarida ushbu shakl yozma ravishda "standart" sifatida tarqaldi. Ko'p holatlar mustamlakachi xaritachilar va hind tarjimonlarining o'zlari tomonidan standartlashtirilgan ko'rinadi. Masalan, mustamlakachilar bir vaqtlar Xassunek yoki Xassunet tepaligi deb nomlangan tepalikka murojaat qilishgan, ammo bugungi kunda bu nom Assone nomi bilan saqlanib qolgan.t Worcester-dagi ko'cha. Xuddi shunday, Asnacomet Ilgari Nipmuc tilida yashovchi Pond "Asacancomi" deb yozilganv eski mustamlakachilik manbalarida.^[23][24][25] Ushbu "tuzatish" Konnektikut daryosida to'xtaydi, chunki aksariyat joylar Mahikan bilan bog'liq joylardan, masalan Hoos.tushunarli, Housatontushunarli, Mahkinak, Kvassoka va Mananoshick va Podat kabi Pocomtuc misollarioka, Pocumtoka, Quyoshhick, Norvottoka va Pachasstushunarli sezilarli darajada bu xususiyat etishmaydi.^[24][25] Shunga qaramay, dialektalning xilma-xilligi sababli / -at / faqat Massachusett diagnostikasi emas.^[23]

Ismlar

Endonimlar

Tilga murojaat qilishning an'anaviy usuli oddiygina edi Httꝏonk^[26] (hutuwôk) / xetəwãk /, "ular bir-birlari bilan gaplashadigan narsalar"^[27] Dialektlar yoki tushunish qiyin bo'lgan tillar edi siogontꝏwaonk^[28] (sayakotuwâôk) / sajakattavaːãk /,^[29] "qiyin til", aksincha qalbimdagilar^[28] (peen8wôtuwâôk) / piːnuːwãtavaːãk /,^[30]"begona" yoki "g'alati til".

Muayyan odamlarga yoki joylarga murojaat qilish kerak bo'lganda, odamlar yoki joy nomlari ta'qib qilingan unnontꝏwaog^[28] (unôtuwâôk) / enattavaːãk /^[31] "o'z xalqining tili" yoki "odamlar gapiradigan narsani" ko'rsatish.^[28] Mustamlakachilik davrida bu til odatda ma'lum bo'lgan Massachusett unnontꝏwaonk (Muhsachuweesut unôtuwâôk) / mahsatʃəwiːsət anattavaːãk /, 'Massachusett (mintaqa) tili' yoki Massachusee unnontꝏwaonk (Muhsachuweesee unôtuwâôk) / mahsatʃəwiːsiː enãtavaːãk /, 'Massachusett tili (odamlar).' Massachuse "Massachusett" ingliz tilida qabul qilinganiga qaramay, odamlarga va tilga murojaat qilish uchun an'anaviy Massachusettda ishlatishda to'g'ri qisqa shakli bo'lgan, shuning uchun "Massachusett Psalter" ning tarjimasi Massachusee Psalter.^[32] Xalq va til o'z ismlarini ingliz tilida shunday nomlanuvchi muqaddas tepalikdan olgan Buyuk Moviy tepalik. Ism kelib chiqadi sog'indim^[33] (muhs-),^[32][34] "katta", "muqaddas" yoki "buyuk" [w] achuwees ([w] achuwees) / [w] atʃəw [iː] s /, "tepalik" (so'zma-so'z "kichik tog '") va joylashuv qo'shimchasi -et (-ut). Kichiklashtiruvchi sinxronizatsiya (-yes) ga -s lahjalarda va tezkor yoki erkin nutqda keng tarqalgan edi, shuning uchun mustamlaka shakli vaxus ehtiyotkorlik bilan Massachusettdan farqli o'laroq (wachuwees).

WLRP bilan bog'liq bo'lgan Wampanoag qabilalari tilni (Wôpanâôtuwâok), ehtimol mustamlaka imlosiga qaytarilgan Wampanaontꝏwaonk"Vampanoag tili" nafaqat vampanoag xalqi tomonidan tarixiy ravishda qo'llanilgan navlarni, balki umuman Massachusett tilini ham anglatadi. Ism kelib chiqadi vampan-^[35] (wopan-),^[36] "sharq" yoki "shafaq" va shu tariqa "sharqchilarning tili" yoki "shafaq odamlarining tili" degan ma'noni anglatadi. Qayta tiklangan dialektning zamonaviy ma'ruzachilari buni qisqartiradilar (Wopanâak) (Wampanoag), garchi bu texnik jihatdan faqat odamlarga tegishli bo'lsa ham.^[2]

Exonimlar

Massachusets ko'rfazidagi va Plimut koloniyalaridagi ingliz ko'chmanchilari dastlab Massachusettni Hind tili, dastlab ular xalqlar o'rtasidagi etnik va til chegaralarini bilmaganliklari sababli, keyinchalik hindlarning deyarli barchasi bir xil tilda gaplashishini aniqlaganlarida. Massachusett umumiy atama sifatida qabul qilingan, garchi hind missiyasining ta'siri va Natik ibodat qilish shaharchasining muvaffaqiyati tufayli, Natik shuningdek, tilga, ayniqsa yozma shaklda odatiy ma'lumot edi. Plimut koloniyasida, ikkalasi ham Massachusett va Vampanoag, ayniqsa, koloniya o'zlarining an'anaviy hududlarining ko'p qismini qamrab olganligi sababli, umumiy foydalanishda bo'lgan. Ushbu uchta atama bugungi kunda ingliz tilida tilga murojaat qilishning eng keng tarqalgan usuli bo'lib qolmoqda, masalan, eski mustamlakachilik nomlarini bekor qilish Nonantum, Pokanoket yoki Abberginalik.

Ko'proq texnik kontekstlarda Massachusett ko'pincha uning umumiy millatiga mansub ismlar bilan tanilgan, masalan Massachusett-Vampanoag, Vampanoag-Massachusett, Massachusett-Koveset yoki Massachusett-Narragansett, garchi tilshunoslarning aksariyati Narragansettni yaqindan bog'liq til bo'lsa ham alohida deb bilishadi.^[37] Jessi Little Doe Bairdning Wopanâak tillarini qayta tiklash loyihasi doirasida tilni qayta tiklashga qaratilgan ilmiy, madaniy va ommaviy axborot vositalarining katta e'tiborlari, shuningdek, Wampanoag Massachusett aholisidan ancha ko'pligi sababli, "Wampanoag" dan foydalanish yoki uning qayta tiklangan shakli "Woppanak" "butun tilga murojaat qilish ko'paymoqda.^[2][37]

Geografik taqsimot

XVII asrning oxirigacha Massachusett mahalliy ahamiyatga ega bo'lgan til edi. Soddalashtirilgan pidgin shaklida u mintaqaviy sifatida qabul qilingan lingua franca Yangi Angliya va Long-Aylend. Ona tili sifatida uning shevalarida Massachusets shtatining qirg'oq va izolyatsion hududlarida va shimoliy va janubi-sharqiy Rod-Aylendning qo'shni qismlarida hamda janubi-sharqiy va qirg'oqdagi Nyu-Xempshirning ayrim qismlarida yashovchi bir necha xalqlar gaplashar edilar, o'tmish lahjalari tarixiy jihatdan shimolga qadar eng janubiy uchiga qadar cho'zilgan. Meyn shtati. Mahalliy xalqlarning aksariyatini o'ldirgan epidemiyalar to'lqini tufayli, XVIII asr boshlarida qirol Filippning urushidan keyin ingliz kolonistlarining er va boyliklar uchun katta oqimi va katta g'alayon bilan raqobatlashdi. uning ma'ruzachilari sobiq Ibodat qilayotgan Natik va Ponkapoag shaharlarida va undan kattaroq Vampanoagda joylashgan Marta uzumzori va materikdagi Nantucket va Mashpee orollarida izolyatsiya qilingan Wampanoag turar-joylarida to'planib, kamayib borayotgan er bazasi va aholisi bilan shartnoma tuzgan edi. Yana bir asrlik o'ta assimilyatsiya bosimi, o'zaro nikoh va kundalik hayotda ingliz tilini o'rganish va undan foydalanish zarurligidan so'ng, XIX asrga kelib Massachusett tilida so'zlashuvchi jamoalardan bu til yo'q bo'lib ketdi, eng so'nggi ma'ruzachilar asr oxirida Martaning uzumzorida vafot etdilar.^[38]

Zamonaviy ma'ruzachilar Cape Cod va orollar va yaqin mintaqalardagi to'rtta jamoani o'rab turgan hudud bilan cheklangan, shu jumladan "Keypdan tashqarida" biroz ko'proq, shu jumladan. Mashpee, Akvinna, Fritaunva Sidarvill, Plimut ular Vopanak tilini melioratsiya qilish loyihasida ishtirok etadigan federal tan olingan Mashpee va Aquinnah va Wampanoag shtatidagi Assonet va Herring Pond qabilalarining uyi.^[2] Boshqa qabilalar Massachusettda so'zlashuvchi xalqlardan kelib chiqqan Hamdo'stlikni tan olish Massachusett aholisining Natik va Ponkapoag qabilalari va Vampanoag xalqining Chappakuiddik, Pokkasset va Seakonke qabilalarini o'z ichiga oladi. Garchi bu qabilalarda ma'ruzachilar va WLRP ishtirokchilari bo'lmasa-da, ular ajdodlari uchun hujjatlarni va tarjimalarni tarixiy, madaniy, muqaddas va liturgik maqsad sifatida, xususan eski mustamlaka yozuvida hurmat qilishda davom etmoqdalar.^[39]

Massachusett tilida so'zlashadigan xalqlardan kelib chiqqan ba'zi nasablarga ega bo'lgan boshqa guruhlarga qirol Filippning urushidagi qochqinlarni singdirgan qabilalar kiradi. Abenaki (Alnobak) Nyu-Xempshirning shimoliy qismida, Vermont va Kvebek; The Schaghticoke (Pishgachtigok) g'arbiy Konnektikutning Nyu-York va Qardosh shahar yoki Brotherton (Eeyawquittoowauconnuck) va Stok-ko'prigi-Münsi (Mahiikaniiw-Munsíiw), Nyu-Angliya janubidagi va Viskonsinga ko'chib o'tgan boshqa joylardagi xalqlarning ikkala birlashmasi.^[40] 'Bermudan Mohawks' - bu qadimgi oilalarning nomi Avliyo Devid oroli- kimlar boshqa xalqlardan ajralib turardi Bermuda Tug'ma nasablarining yuqori darajasi tufayli, asosan, Angliya hindulari davrida qo'lga olingan Pequot urushi va Qirol Filippning urushi va qullikka sotilgan.^[41] Bundan tashqari, oz sonli métis kuni Keyp Sable oroli, Yangi Shotlandiya mahalliy mikmoqlar o'rtasidagi o'zaro nikohlardan kelib chiqadi, Akadiyalik O'n to'qqizinchi asrda ish izlashga kelgan frantsuz ko'chmanchilari va Wampanoag baliqchilari, ekipaj a'zolari va kitlar.^[42]

Lahjalar

Janubiy Yangi Angliya Algonquian tillari a dialekt davomiyligi, tillar va dialektlar o'rtasidagi chegaralar o'tish nutqining navlari bilan yumshatilgan. Qo'shni jamoalar o'rtasida kichik tafovutlar mavjud edi, ammo ular masofa va izolyatsiya bilan kuchayib bordi va doimiylikning qarama-qarshi tomonlaridan kelgan ma'ruzachilar o'zaro tushunish uchun biroz ko'proq qiyinchiliklarga duch kelishlari mumkin edi, ammo barcha SNEA tillari va lahjalari ba'zilar uchun o'zaro tushunarli edi.^[22]

Mahalliy aholi depopulyatsiyasi paytida kasallik avj olishi va qirol Filipp urushi betartibligi tufayli ko'plab lahjalar yo'qolgan. Garchi ular ilgari yuqmagan patogenlar ta'siridan kelib chiqadigan bir nechta epidemiyalar bilan kasallangan bo'lsa-da, epidemiya leptospiroz 1619 yilda va zararli chechak 1633 yilda epidemiya hindularning erlarini deyarli tozalab tashladi. Birinchi epidemiya aholi zich joylashgan qirg'oq mintaqalarida o'lim darajasi 90 foizga etdi, ammo keyingi epidemiya kengroq ta'sir ko'rsatdi.^[43] Epidemiyalar Massachusettda so'zlashuvchi xalqlarni Narragansett va Pennakuk kabi Tarratin va Moxavk kabi an'anaviy dushmanlarning hujumlariga ochib berdi, shuningdek, inglizlarning joylashuviga qarshilik ko'rsatishni olib tashladi. Urush ko'plab xalqlarning bu hududdan qochib ketishiga sabab bo'ldi va qoldiq populyatsiyalar qayta to'planib, dialekt jamoalari va tarqoq xalqlarni birlashtirdi.^[44]

So'zlashuv tilini bilish va uning xilma-xilligi SNEA tillarining so'nggi ma'ruzachilarining o'limi bilan to'xtadi. XVIII asrning oxiriga kelib, aksariyati hind jamoalarining funktsional, kundalik tillari bo'lishni to'xtatgan va agar ularning hammasi yigirmanchi asrning tongida yo'q bo'lib ketgan bo'lsa. Ko'pgina lingvistik bilimlar so'zlar ro'yxatiga va mustamlakachilik manbalarida eslab o'tilgan ma'lumotlarga asoslanadi, bu faqat juda cheklangan tushuncha beradi.^[45] Yozma yozuvlarda biroz farq bor, ammo dialektni tekislash ning kiritilishi bilan olib kelingan amalda standart yozma til Eliotning Injilini tarjima qilishda va savodxonlikni o'rgatish uchun ishlatilgan bir nechta primerlar va katexizmlar hind tarjimonlari, Natikning muharrirlari va tarjimonlari yordamida ishlab chiqarilgan va uning nutqiga asoslangan.^[46]

Massachusets ko'rfazida va Plimut koloniyalarining Namoz o'qiyotgan shaharlari bo'ylab ko'plab savodli hindlarning, Natikdan bo'lgan yoki u erda bir muddat o'qiganlarning ish bilan ta'minlanishi, nutq tilini ko'tarishga yordam berdi, chunki u va'z paytida yoki har qanday yozma hujjatda Muqaddas Kitob parchalari ovoz chiqarib o'qilganda o'qilgan. . Mayhew bilan tajriba qiling, o'zi tilda ikki tilli va missionerlarning to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yo'nalishidan Marta uzumzoridagi hindulargacha, bu erda materikdan qo'shni Vampanoag uchun umuman tushunarsiz deb aytilgan so'zlar, "... ular orasidagi kichik farqlarning aksariyati baxtli Yo'qotdim va hindularimiz gapirishadi, lekin, ayniqsa Natikka o'xshab ko'p yozadilar. '^[47][48]

Yozma manbalardan kichik farqlarni aniqlash mumkin, ammo aksariyat yozuvlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, Massachusettda so'zlashadigan odamlar bir-biriga juda o'xshash gaplashishgan. Eliot bilan birga Namoz o'qiyotgan shaharlarga ekskursiya qilgan Deniel Gukin, Pawtucket, Pokanoket (Wampanoag) va Massachusettlarning barchasi bir xil tilda gaplashayotganini ta'kidladi. Ives Goddard, etnopolitik chegaralarni keltirganidek Jon R. Svanton yoki Frederik Uebb Xodj Massachusett, Pawtucket, Wampanoag, Nauset va Coweset xalqlariga mos keladigan Natick, North Shore, Wampanoag, Nauset va Coweset kabi beshta shevani sanab o'tdi, garchi nauset shunchaki Wampanoagning izolyatsiya qilingan pastki qabilasi bo'lishi mumkin edi.^[5]

Olingan tillar

Massachusett Pidgin

Sharqiy Algonquian tillarining bir nechta mintaqaviy pidgin navlari mustamlakachilik yozuvlarida, shu jumladan Mahican, Munsee, Powhatan va Nyu-England, Massachusett shtatlarida tasdiqlangan. Ushbu pidgin navlari qisqartirilgan lug'at va grammatikani soddalashtirgan. Ushbu pidgin navlari o'zaro tushunarli bo'lgan lahjalar yoki tillar ma'ruzachilari o'rtasida aloqa vositasi sifatida ishlatilgan.^[49]

Massachusett Pidgin Yangi Angliya va Long-Aylend bo'ylab umumiy til sifatida ishlatilgan va ehtimol chet ellik ingliz ko'chmanchilarida ishlatilgan. Masalan, Edvard Uinslov 1624 yilgi vaziyatni tasvirlaydi Yangi Angliyadan xushxabar u erda u va boshqa bir necha ziyoratchilar hindular bilan yaxshi suhbatlashish va tushunish imkoniyatiga ega bo'lishdi, ammo hindular o'zaro tabiiy ravishda o'zlarining tabiiy tili sifatida, lekin ehtimol chet el inglizlari bilan ma'lumot almashishni cheklash uchun ba'zan bir-biriga o'xshash, ammo beparvo tilda gaplashishardi. ko'chmanchilar. Pidgin xilma-xilligi Massachusettdan quyidagi yo'llar bilan farq qildi:^[50]

Lug'atni soddalashtirish

• squaw-sachem (*kvotom) / skʷa sãtʲəm /^[51] Massachusett o'rniga sonkisquaw yoki sinxronlashtirilgan botqoq va sonkisq *(sôkusqâ) / sãkəskʷaː /^[52]

Massachusett bo'lmagan so'z birikmalaridan foydalanish

• Abenakian sagamore *(sôkumô) / sãmpã /^[53] Massachusett o'rniga sakem (soteum), garchi ikkala shakl ham Proto-Algonquain * dan olingansa · kima · va.
• Abenakian yoki Unami wigwam *(weekuwôm) / wiːkəwãm / Massachusett o'rniga wetu (weetyuw) / wiːtʲəw /,^[54] ikkala shakl ham Proto-Algoquian * dan kelib chiqqan bo'lsa-dawi · kiwa · mi.

Fe'llarni o'tmaydigan jonsiz holatga keltirish

• ism (nâmun Massachusett o'rniga "ko'rish uchun" so'zma-so'z nunaw (rahmat) / nima naːw /,^[55] transit animate 'Men ko'rayapman (kimnidir yoki nimanidir) tirik) ". Buni Winsnow Matta neen wonckanet namen "Men Winslowni endi hech qachon ko'rmayman" misolida ko'rish mumkin, lekin "Hech qachon men buni endi Winslowni ko'rmayapman".
• Massachusettda "ko'rayapman (biron bir narsani yoki biron bir narsani)" to'g'ri keladi nunaum^[56] (nunam) / na naːm /^[57]

Massachusett Pidgindan foydalanish Massachusett Pidgin inglizchasiga foydaliligiga qaramay, ayniqsa, ingliz ko'chmanchilari o'zlarining o'rnini egallab olganlarida va o'z erlarini egallab olgan va kasallikdan xalos bo'lgan xalqning tilida juda kam foydaliligini ko'rishgan. Massachusett Pidgin va boshqa Algonquian pidgin tillariga qiziqish, ular Algonquian tillaridan so'zlarning asosiy manbai bo'lganligi sababli kelib chiqadi. Masalan, dastlabki ziyoratchilar va puritanlar faqatgina murojaat qilishadi wigwams va hech qachon sersuv. Xuddi shunday, sagamore kabi umumiy chastotada bo'lgan sakem Yangi Angliyaning dastlabki ingliz tilida.^[50]

Massachusett Pidgin ingliz tili

Bir necha hindular ingliz tilini ingliz dengizchilari, avantyuristlari, baliqchilari va savdogarlari bilan bir necha o'n yillar davomida vaqti-vaqti bilan Plymutdagi Yangi Angliyaning birinchi doimiy yashash joyidan oldin aloqada bo'lish orqali rudimentar bilimlarga ega edilar. Ziyoratchilar o'z postlarini tashkil qilganlarida, ularni ingliz tilida kutib olishdi Samoset, dastlab Meyn qirg'og'idagi Abenaki va Tisquantum ('Squanto'), mahalliy Wopanâak, ammo ularning har ikkala qishloqlari ham Yangi Dunyoda noma'lum bo'lgan yuqumli kasalliklar keltirib chiqargan epidemiya tufayli yo'q qilindi. Tisquantum ingliz kemasi tomonidan o'g'irlab ketilgan va Ispaniyada qullikka sotilgan, sirli ravishda Londonga yo'l topgan va u erda Shimoliy Amerika sohilidagi ingliz kashfiyotlarida ish topgan va keyinchalik qochib, qo'shni Vopanak qishlog'ida yashagan.^[58]

Hindlar allaqachon ko'p dialektalli, ko'p tilli jamiyatda bo'lganligi sababli, Ingliz tili Massachusett leksikasi, grammatikasi va ehtimol talaffuzining kuchli ta'siri bilan juda tez qabul qilindi. Ingliz ko'chmanchilarining soni ko'payib, mahalliy xalqlardan tezroq oshib borgan sari mahalliy aholi ingliz tilidan tez-tez foydalana boshladilar va inglizlar hindular bilan aloqa qilish uchun ham undan foydalanishdi. Natijada pidgin ehtimol "wigwam so'zlari", ya'ni mahalliy Algonquian qarz so'zlari, bir vaqtlar Amerika qit'asida keng tarqalgan bo'lib, ularni tarqatish vektori edi.

Massachusett Pidgin ingliz tili so'zlashuvda asosan inglizcha edi, lekin ko'plab kredit so'zlari, grammatik xususiyatlari va kaloriyalar Massachusett Pidgin. Hindlar orasida u "standart" Massachusett tili, mahalliy nutq va boshqa dialektlar yoki tillar, Massachusett Pidin va ingliz tillaridan foydalangan holda mavjud bo'lgan. Hindlar tez jarayonni boshlaganlaridek til o'zgarishi o'n sakkizinchi asrning oxirida, ehtimol Massachusett Pidgin ingliz o'ziga xos xususiyatlarini yo'qotdi va mahalliy nutq evolyutsiyasi bilan birlashdi, bu navlardan biri Sharqiy Yangi Angliya ingliz tili yoki hatto Umumiy Amerika shunga o'xshash jarayonda mintaqaning aksariyat hinduliy bo'lmagan aholisi dekolizatsiya. Massachusett Pidgin English quyidagi xususiyatlarga ega edi:^[59]

Massachusett kredit so'zlari (Massachusett Pidgin so'z birikmasi)

• meechin Massachusettdan metsuwonk^[60]/(meech8ôk)^[61] / miːˌtʃuːˈãk / ("oziq-ovqat") Massachusett Pidgin orqali meechum ('ovqat').
• sannap Massachusettdan "yosh yigit" uchun.
• wunneekin Massachusettdan ("yaxshi") wunnegin^[62]/(wuneekun)^[63] ('yaxshi').

Umumlashgan olmoshlar

• "Men" dan "men" va "men" uchun foydalanish.

SNEA N-dialekt aralashuvi

• Ingliz tili katta dengiz qisqichbagasi va ingliz familiyasi Winslow Massachusett Pidgin inglizcha bilan nobstah va Winsnownavbati bilan / n / uchun / l / ingliz tili.
• Ingliz tili Frantsuzlar sifatida qabul qilingan panaxmonog, almashtirish / n / uchun / r / ingliz tili.

Kalklar

• barchasi bitta, Massachusett Pidgin kalkasi tatapa sen ('shunga o'xshash').
• katta, muhsuh kalkali - / * muhsh
• Qayta nusxalash
  Masalan, tomonidan va tomonidan ("tez orada")

Inglizlar tomonidan kiritilgan uy hayvonlari uchun Massachusett jonli ko'plik qo'shimchasidan foydalanish

• sigir/(*sigir) ('sigirlar').
• otliq/(*ot), ("otlar").
• cho'chqa/(*cho'chqa), ('cho'chqalar').

Massachusett Pidgin ingliz tiliga misollar^[64][65]

• Ingliz odam hammasi bitta nutq, hammasi bir yurak. ('Angliya nima desa, u nima deb o'ylaydi').
• Weaybee gon paltolarmi? (Yo'qolgan paltolar?) ('Paltolaringiz bormi?').
• Qanday xursand bo'ling, netop. ('Salom, do'stim') Netop, "do'stim", Massachusettdan netomp/(neetôp).
• Kichkina yo'l, cho'chqani olib keling. ('[U cho'chqalarni olib kelish uchun juda uzoqqa bormadi)').

Tarix

Mustamlakachilikgacha bo'lgan tarix

Algic tillarining tarqalishi

Garchi Nyu-Angliyadagi insoniyat tarixi miloddan avvalgi 10000 yilda boshlangan bo'lsa-da, qachon Paleo-hindular ning chekinishi bilan ta'sirlangan tundraga kirdi Viskonsin muzligi oxirida Pleystotsen, glotoxronologiya va ba'zi tasdiqlovchi arxeologik dalillar til tarixini izlar Shimoli-g'arbiy platosi mintaqa yoki Tinch okeanining shimoli-g'arbiy qismi qirg'oq tekisligidan baland tog'lar bilan ajralib turadi, atrofni o'rab turgan o'rta va yuqori mintaqalar atrofida Kolumbiya daryosi. Bu maydon, ehtimol Urxaymat Proto-Algic karnaylari bilan bog'liq.^[66] Migratsiya, madaniy ta'sirlar va til o'zgarishi ma'ruzachi tomonidan joy almashishiga olib keldi Kalapuyan (†), Na-Dene, Palaihnihan, Penutian platosi, Salishanva boshqalar, shuningdek, qirg'oq tillari kengroq tarqalishi mumkin edi. Algik tillari ushbu hududdan uzoqlashgan, faqat algonquya bo'lmagan algik tillari bo'lgan Viyot va Yurokning Kaliforniya shtatidagi shimoliy qirg'oq hududlari bilan ko'chirilgan.^[67]

Proto-Algic, Proto-Algonquian avlodi ajralib chiqdi va sharqqa tarqaldi, ehtimol miloddan avvalgi 1000-yillarda, AQSh va Kanadaning shimoliy va sharqiy qismida tarqalgan algic tillarining asosiy qismini tashkil etuvchi Algonquian tillarining ajdodi. qirg'oqqa qadar bo'lgan Rokki. Proto-Algonquian gapirgan aniq joy Shimoliy G'arbiy Yassi mintaqasida, ehtimol eng g'arbiy Algonquian tillari gapiradigan Aydahoda joylashgan bo'lishi mumkin, lekin u erda va mintaqaning g'arbiy qismida joylashgan Buyuk ko'llar joylashtirilgan.^[68] Algonquian tillari sharqqa qarab harakatlanayotganda bo'linib ketgan, ehtimol ularning tarqalishi osonlashgan tepalik quruvchi da rivojlangan madaniyatlar Adena (Miloddan avvalgi 1000-200 yillar) va Xayr (Mil. 200-500) madaniy davrlar.^[69]

Miloddan avvalgi 1000 yilga kelib Proto-Sharqiy Algonquian hozirgi Janubiy Ontarioda va sharqda paydo bo'ldi, bu erda keyinchalik Sharqiy Algonquian qizlari tarqaldi. Atlantika Kanada janubdan Shimoliy Karolina. Ushbu davr Yangi Angliyaga kichik miqyosdagi ko'chishlar bilan belgilanadi, ehtimol ularning boshlanishini joriy qiladi Uch opa-singil qishloq xo'jaligi va Iroquoian kulolchilik ta'siri. Katta migratsiya dalillari bo'lmaganligi sababli, Sharqiy Algonquianning tarqalishi madaniy jihatdan rivojlangan migrantlarga ko'proq o'xshaydi, chunki bu tillarning o'zgarishini keltirib chiqarmoqda, chunki populyatsiyalarning so'nggi katta harakati Arxaik davr (Miloddan avvalgi 8000-2000).^[70]

Sharqiy Algonquianning rivojlanishi, ehtimol, boshqa Algonquian tillaridan ma'ruzachilar tomonidan ajratilgan izolyatsiyasining natijasi bo'lishi mumkin. Iroquoian va Siuan-Katavban tillar.

Bir necha asrlardan so'ng Proto-Southern New England Algonquian (PSNEA) SNEA tillariga ajralib ketdi. Ushbu rivojlanish tropik makkajo'xori o'simliklarining shimoliy iqlim sharoitlariga mos keladigan yangi shtammlari va milodiy 1300 yillarda qirg'oq resurslaridan foydalanishning ko'payishi bilan bir vaqtda bo'lishi mumkin. Oxirgi o'rmon davri. Qishloq xo'jaligining yaxshilanishi qirg'oq yaqinidagi yoki katta daryolar bo'yidagi ekin maydonlarida katta aholini qo'llab-quvvatladi. Aholining harakatlari tilning Nyu-Angliyaning janubi-sharqidan tarqalishini ko'rsatib, uni Konnektikutga va shimolga yoyib yuborganga o'xshaydi. Resurslar raqobati, ko'proq harakatsiz va doimiy yashash joylari va shimol va janubi-g'arbiy qismdan kichik migratsiyalar oqimi, ehtimol hududiylikni kuchaytirgan bo'lishi mumkin, bu cheklangan mahalliy ishlab chiqarish maydonlari bo'lgan sopol buyumlarning yangi uslublari bilan tasdiqlanishi mumkin. Bu vaqtdan ko'p o'tmay, tillar, xalqlar va texnologiyalar o'n oltinchi asrning oxirida qirg'oqlarga tashrif buyurishni boshlagan evropaliklar uchun taniqli bo'lishi mumkin edi.^[71]

Dastlabki mustamlaka davri

Birinchi ingliz aholi punktlari Plimut koloniyasi 1620 yilda ziyoratchilar tomonidan va Massachusets ko'rfazidagi koloniya 1629 yilda puritanlar tomonidan ikkalasi ham Massachusett tilida so'zlashadigan hududda tashkil etilgan.^[72] Mustamlakachilar tirik qolish uchun hindularga bog'liq bo'lib, ba'zilari savdo uchun hindular bilan qanday aloqa qilishni o'rgandilar.^[73] Inglizlar soni tobora ko'payib borgan sari Puritan migratsiyasiva hindular son-sanoqsiz bo'lib, hindularni assimilyatsiya qilish bo'yicha harakatlar amalga oshirildi. Muqaddas Kitobni targ'ib qilish jamiyatining mustamlakachilik ko'magi va mablag'lari bilan, masalan missionerlar Jon Eliot, Tomas Mayhew va uning avlodlari Wampanoag orasida va Rojer Uilyams mahalliy tillarni o'rganishni va hindlarni konvertatsiya qilishni boshladi.^[74] Eliot Nonantumda va'z qilishni boshladi (hozir Nyuton, Massachusets) va 1651 yildan boshlab konvertatsiya qilingan jamoalar tashkil etildi ibodat qiladigan shaharlar yoki hind plantatsiyalari, bu erda hindular inglizlarning urf-odatlari va tillarini qabul qilishlari, nasroniylikni qabul qilishlari va mustamlakachilik yurisdiksiyasini qabul qilishlari uchun da'vat etilgan.^[75][76] Eliot 1663 yilda Muqaddas Kitobni nashr etdiNamoz o'qiyotgan shaharlardagi hindular Natik lahjasi Bibliya orfografiyasini qabul qila boshladilar.

Tarjima va adabiyot

Jon Eliot hindularga xizmatni boshlaganidan so'ng, yangi dinni qabul qilganlar boshdan kechirishi uchun savodxonlik zarurligini tezda angladi Muqaddas Kitobdagi ilhom o'z-o'zidan. Mahalliy tarjimonlar va Eliotning hindular bilan tez-tez aloqalari yordamida u tilni yaxshi bildi va Natikda eshitgan tovushlarni maxsus moda, ingliz imlo qoidalaridan foydalangan holda. 1651 yilga kelib Eliot Natikda savodxonlik va dinni o'rgatish uchun qo'lda yozilgan katexizmni yaratdi, so'ngra tarjimasi Zabur kitobi bu nusxa ko'chirilgan. A small group of literate Indians began teaching it to others, and Eliot established a school to train Indian missionaries who were literate and able to read these materials.^[77]

As the Indians gained literacy and Eliot's notoriety grew, funding was given from the Yangi Angliyada Xushxabarni targ'ib qilish jamiyati. The Society, which supported Kalvinist va Jamoatchi missions banned under the influence of Anglo-Catholic monarchs and leaders of the Church of England. In 1655, the Indian College of Harvard University, its first brick building, was constructed and a printing press and materials were sent.^[78] Eliot began right away, printing copies of the Ibtido kitobi va Matto xushxabari o'sha yili. In 1663, Eliot printed the completed translation of the Bible, his monumental achievement. Eliot continued to print translations, until his death in 1690.^[79]

After his death, the Society commissioned other missionaries, most notably Mayhew bilan tajriba qiling, who, as a child in long line of missionaries to the Wampanoag of Martha's Vineyard, was fluent in the language and his works were popular with the Indians for its consistent spelling and adherence to more natural spoken style of the Indians themselves.^[80] Other missionaries commissioned include Samuel Danforth, an assistant to John Eliot; Grindal Rawson, minister to the Praying Indians of Wacentug (Uxbridge, Massachusets); John Cotton, Jr., preacher to Wôpanâak of Plymouth, Mashpee and Martha's Vineyard and his nephew, Paxta yig'uvchi, influential Puritan theologian.^[79] As the colonies came under direct rule, and interest in the Indian mission waned, the Society last commissioned a reprint of Mayhew's Indiane Primer asuh Negonneuyeuuk in 1747. The end of the missionary translations impacted, but did not finish off, Native literacy, which continued until the close of the eighteenth century.^[7] The following is a list of the Society's publications and their year of printing:

^1 The 1662 edition was a revised and longer version.
^2 These revised editions were completed with the assistance of John Cotton, Jr. and include the 'Leaf of Rules,' a series of rules to be followed by Indians in accordance to English law and custom and Christian tradition.
^3 Consists of a reworked edition of the metrical Wame Ketꝏhomáe uk-Ketꝏhomaongash David with a short catechism. Printed both with Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum Xudo va alohida.
^4 Half-completed, but was never finished or published.
^5 Although in English, it includes a wealth of information about the language, especially its grammatical structure. Some copies were bound with later versions of Psalter yoki Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum Xudo and likely distributed to other missionaries working amongst the Indians.
^6 Although in English, these works were distributed to Indian missionaries to help improve their ministry.
^7 Started in Eliot in 1664, but was completed by Grindal Rawson.
^8 Mayhew's Massachusee Psalter consisted of a retranslated Uk-kuttoohomaongash David, 'Songs of David' (Zabur kitobi) and a retranslated Wunnaunchemookaonk ne Anukhogup John (Gospel According to John).
^9 The address to the Indians was appended to a copy of Danforth's sermon, The Woeful Effects of Drunkenness.
^10 This was likely never published and no copies survive, but it was said to be popular in use as a catechism by the Indians who took to the English version when no Indian copies could be found.^11 Mayhew's Indiane Primer was a retranslation of Eliot's original primer, also bound to copies of Grindal Rawson's translation of Nashauanittue Meninnunk wutch Mukkiesog.
^12 Published in Mather's India Christiana.

Indian translators, missionaries and the spread of literacy

Eliot Indian Bible 1663

"Old Indian Meeting House"ichida Mashpee (built in 1684) is the Qo'shma Shtatlar's oldest Native American church. Garchi Nasroniylik destroyed traditional spiritual practices, the translation of the Injil helped the Wampanoag language survive.

Jon Eliot preaching to Indians

A team of Native translators and interpreters assisted Eliot and the other missionaries with their translations, even though most of their work was uncredited. Eliot himself relied on Cockenoe, his servant from Long Island who spoke a related SNEA language and was able to interpret for Eliot; Job Nesutan, who was very proficient in writing and reading; Jon Sassamon, an orphan raised in English households and later became an important interpreter between the English and Indians, and James Wawâus Printer, who learned the printing presses and was said by Eliot to have been the most prolific.^[81] When Mayhew was commissioned to provide missionary translations, he was assisted by Printer, Neesnumin and Hiacoomes, the first convert to Christianity on Martha's Vineyard.

Some of Eliot's converts became missionaries, who in turn spread Christianity and literacy so that within twenty years of Eliot's first printed translations, literacy went from none to one in three Natives of the Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies.

At least a handful of Indians attended classes to prepare them for assuming the Indian mission at Harvard University prior to the construction of the Indian College, such as James Printer and John Sassamon that would later assist Eliot with his translations, and Jethro, a Nashaway (northern Nipmuc) who later was preacher at Wamesit.^[82] Students would later include Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck and Joel Hiacoomes, son of Hiacoomes, two Wampanoag from Martha's Vineyard; Eleazar, a Wampanoag; and John Wampas, a Nipmuc who was later appointed by his people to protect their rights and land with his bilingual talent, but who betrayed his people to curry favor from the English. The last student, attending after the building was razed, was Brian Larnell, a Nipmuc. Except for the pre-Indian College students and John Wampas, the others contracted illnesses and perished, possibly from close proximity to the English in an urban setting exposing them to the infections against which they lacked immunity.^[78]

Natick served as a seminary, with a school where Eliot, and later his Indian disciples, would instruct literacy in Massachusett, Christian religion and English culture before serving as official interpreters, administrators of the Praying towns or elders of the Indian churches, often recruited from the tribal ėlite. Armed with literacy and copies of the missionary translations, these Indians began instructing others.^[82] At Natick, Eliot passed on his role as teacher to Monesquassin, who in turn taught it to others. Records from the seventeenth and eighteenth century indicate that quite a few Indians were involved, mainly those from or with kinship connections to Natick, which combined with that dialect's use in Eliot's translations, leveled dialectal differences.^[83] Many of these Indians are named in the records, such as the Ahatons of Ponkapoag and the Speens of Natick, Joseph Tuckawillipin of Hassanamessit, Simon Beckom of Wamesit, Samuel Church at Watuppa and Isaac Jeffrey at Manomet and Herring Pond.^[82]

By 1674, a request for literacy rates of the Indians in the Plymouth Colony by Daniel Gukin indicated that 29% of the converted Indians could read and 17% could write the Massachusett language. With its own church, the highest rates for literacy were found in the villages of Codtanmut, Ashmuit and Weesquobs—all within Mashpee—where 59% of the population could read and 31% could write. The general rate was likely the same or higher in the Praying towns of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. These Indians, due to their important status as members of prominent tribal families and proficiency, not only took over the mission and served as deacons, elders, ministers and preachers but also as teachers, councilmen, jurors, constables and other administrative functions in the Praying towns. Literacy continued to be an important part of the Indian communities until the 1770s, however, its role diminished as younger generations of Indians switched to using English and fewer and fewer Indian churches remained under Indian control with Indian congregants and preachers, in part because of the upheavals of war, loss of land and lack of economic incentives to stay in the Praying town.^[84]

Yo'qolib ketish

The use of the written language declined over the course of the eighteenth century. In Natick, where Indian literacy began, the last town records in the language were written by Thomas Waban (Weegramomenit), son of Waban, in 1720. The last document to survive in the language are the records of the Congregational Church of Gay Head, recording the marriage of John Joel and Mary Tallmon by the minister Zachary Hossueit, in 1771. The last known epigrafik evidence of the written language is its use on the now damaged tombstone of Silas Paul, another Indian minister of Gay Head, in 1787.^[85] Anecdotal evidence suggests that some Indians were literate up until the middle of the nineteenth century, although no documents from this period survive.^[86]

The spoken language remained in vibrant use in the 1750s on the mainland and as late as the 1770s in the larger, more isolated Wampanoag communities of the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket. By 1798, only one speaker of advanced age was found in Natick.^[87] The language survived on Nantucket until the death of the widow Hurmatli Dorcas in 1855. On Martha's Vineyard, the language survived the longest. In 1808, a church official named Elisha Clap writing about the small congregation of the Baptist minister Zachariah Howwaswee (Hossueit) remarked, 'Only a few aged Indians, who do not understand English, attend his meeting, as he preaches in the native language ....' Howwaswee continued preaching until his death sometime in the 1830s.^[88] It is not known when the last speakers perished, but Tamsen Weekes, who died in 1890 at the age of 90, was likely one of the last fluent speakers. Studies of the Wampanoag tribe in the 1920s did not find any native speakers, but only those who remembered small bits of the language.^[6]

Metakomet ("King Philip") led Indians against the English; his defeat ended local Indian autonomy

The language declined for several reasons. The population of speakers plummeted due to the effects of virgin soil epidemics ning chechak, qizamiq, diphteria va qizil olov that continued to claim indigenous lives well into the nineteenth century, but began with a particularly severe outbreak of leptospiroz in 1619 that claimed the lives of up to 90% of coastal populations where Massachusett-language speakers resided. This reduced their ability to resist neighboring tribes, such as the Mohawk va Tarratine, and the influx of English settlers.^[43]

War also greatly reduced the population. Vayronalari Qirol Filippning urushi (1675–76) is believed to have reduced the population by 40%, due to executions, retaliatory attacks and displacement. Many of the Praying Indians that remained neutral were rounded up and left on islands in Boston Makoni where many perished from disease, starvation and exposure to the elements. Others were sold into slavery in the G'arbiy Hindiston. Many of the indigenous people decided to leave, seeking safety with the Abenaki to the north or the Mahican to the west, where they would eventually assimilate into the host tribe.^[44] Many men were called to fight alongside the English colonists against the French and their Indian allies during the Frantsiya va Hindiston urushlari, a series of conflicts between 1688 and 1763 as well as the Amerika inqilobiy urushi (1775–83). The gender imbalance led to increased intermarriage between Indian women and black or white men outside the speech community.^[89]

Loss of land forced til o'zgarishi in other ways. Only Mashpee and Aquinnah remained in Indian hands by the end of the nineteenth century. The Indians were no longer able to support themselves on agriculture and subsistence as their lands were lost due to encroachment and land sales. This forced men to seek employment as laborers, mariners or whalers in coastal cities whereas women and children found employment as domestics in White households or as peddlers of baskets. The shrinking communities were no longer able to support separate church congregations that traditionally used the language. The population also became a smaller and smaller minority with the growth in the population of descendants of English settlers and large-scale arrival of newcomers from Europe in the nineteenth century, exacerbating already existing assimilation pressures.^[89]

Uyg'onish

The language remained in use the longest in speech and writing in the isolated, insular Wôpanâak communities, but as its use slowly faded, many believed that it would return with the help of descendants of those who destroyed it. Massachusett-language documents in the form of land sales, leases and deeds are found in the oldest layer of city and town archives in Massachusetts. The petitions and complaints to the Massachusets shtatining umumiy sudi were often sent in English and in Massachusett. The records of the former Praying Town and now just town of Natik, Massachusets, are in Massachusett from 1651 until 1720. The Indians also maintained their libraries of religious manuscripts and personal records even as the language ceased to be spoken, many of which were later sold to private collectors and ultimately are now in the possession of the Massachusetts Historical Society. In addition, all the Indian translations and original works by the English missionaries have been preserved.^[85]

The Natik lug'ati, published in 1903 and based on the work of Dr. James H. Trumbull, includes descriptions of vocabulary, mainly from Eliot's Bible but also that of the other missionaries and Roger William's A Key .... The documents of the Indians were extensively analyzed by Ives Goddard and Kathleen Bragdon, with the 1988 release of Native Writings in Massachusett. Reconstructions of gaps in grammar, syntax, vocabulary and pronunciation could be filled by comparison with other related Algonquian languages or by reconstructions based on likely sound changes, such as George F. Aubin's Proto-Algonquian Dictionary 1975 yil^[90]

As acceptance and appreciation of Native American culture grew in the early twentieth century, the local peoples of southern New England began to reconnect through Pan-Indian movements and gatherings, adopting aspects of Plains Indian culture and sharing surviving aspects of traditional culture and language. Many Indians attended the Aquidneck Indian Council meetings in Providens, Rod-Aylend or took part in the Indian Council of New England in 1923.^[91]

The anthropologist and Eastern Woodlands Culture expert Frenk Spek visited the Wampanoag of Mashpee and tried to document the language, but was able to list only twenty words, acquiring them with great difficulty from five of the oldest members in the community.^[92] Xuddi shunday, Gladis Tantakvidon (Mohegan) visited the Wampanoag of Aquinnah. She was able to extract one hundred words from those of most advanced age, her success likely from her attempts to preserve her own language, which became extinct in 1908 with the death of her aunt, Dji'ts Bud dnaca.^[93] Gordon Day recorded a reading of the Lord's Prayer from Chief Wild Horse, Clinton Mye Haynes (1894–1966) of Mashpee, in 1961. Wild Horse was likely one of the last language rememberers.^[94]

1993 yilda, Jessi Little Doe Baird, of the Mashpee Wampanoag, began the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project as a co-founder. U o'qishni boshladi Massachusets texnologiya instituti (MIT). Working with Dr. Kennet Xeyl and later Norvin Richards, Baird was able to reconstruct the pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary of the Indian documents and English missionary translations. Baird later published her thesis, Introduction to Wampanoag Grammar in 2000, the year she completed her Master's in Algonquian Linguistics. The WLRP later expanded to include participants in the Ahquinnah, Herring Pond and Assonet tribes of the Wôpanâak. Since Kenneth Hale was a direct descendant of the missionary Rojer Uilyams and Baird a direct descendant of Nathan Pocknett, who resisted conversion attempts, they fulfilled the Wôpanâak prophecy regarding the language's revival.^[95]

Hozirgi holat

In 2010, Baird was presented the MacArthur Foundation Genius Award in recognition of her language revival efforts.^[96] Keyingi yil, PBS aired portions of Anne Makepeace's documentary Âs Nutayanyean-We Still Live Here as a segment on the program Mustaqil ob'ektiv. The film highlighted Baird's work, as well as interviews with members of the WLRP-participating tribes discussing the project's history, reception, goals and the experiences as the language was revived in their communities.^[97]

In 2014, the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project was able to boast of a handful of children who were growing up as native speakers for the first time in over a century, 15 proficient speakers, two trained Algonquian linguists, a dictionary with approximately 12,000 entries at the time, pedagogical materials and a complete, non-English educational curriculum, and hundreds of students at various stages of language study. In addition, it has enabled a return of use of the language in cultural, spiritual and sacred expressions of Indian identity. The WLRP continues to host educational programs, language immersion summer camps and after-school sessions, and special language days with the four communities that participate.^[8][9]

Uchun asl rejalar (Weetumuw Wôpanâak) Charter School, with plans to open in August 2015, were shelved, as organizers said they would not be able to meet the statutory requirement that their students comprise the lowest tenth percentile of MCAS ballar. Jennifer Weston, who serves as the Immersion School Developer and as the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe Language Department Director, said that "Since we didn't meet that statutory requirement, our application's fate rested on two other groups being approved first."^[98] The decision was also influenced by the conflicting political climate: Republican Governor Charli Beyker proposed to lift the cap on charter schools, but a bill was being considered that was popular with teacher's unions and public opinion hoping for a moratorium.^[98]

Instead, the WLRP opened (Mukayuhsak Weekuw), 'Children's House,' a language immersion school at the Montessori Academy of North Falmut, Massachusets, with a dozen students. Later in November 2016, the school was moved onto Mashpee Wampanoag tribal property, to be closer to Mashpee, from where most of the WLRP staff, instructors and students come.^{[99][98][100]} In 2013, it was estimated that 6% of the students of the Mashpee Public School district were from the Mashpee Wôpanâak tribe.^[100][101] The project also received a three-year grant, which will allow the school to expand to 35 students and train four Montessori-style teachers, but it is likely that the slots may have to be awarded by lottery, given the interest in the project and its closer proximity to a tribal region.^[102]

Wampanoag spokesmen have objected to aspects of the National Geographic"s Azizlar va musofirlar (2015), a two-part Thanksgiving mini-series that explored the early history of the English settlers and Indians in Massachusetts. Baird and Linda Coombs, director of the Aquinnah Wampanoag Cultural Center, initially helped National Geographic as language consultants. They were rebuffed when they asked for authority to review the script before filming, "to ensure it was historically and culturally accurate and that any offensive material had been removed."^[103] When National Geographic refused to allow them to do that, the Wampanoag declined to participate. They said that the dialogue and cultural misconceptions were prejudiced, "stereotypical", and misguided, and certain events in the resulting film were historically wrong.^[103] The production company hired a different language consultant and coach, who translated the dialogue into Western Abenaki. A National Geographic spokesman said the production had noted that this was a cousin language to the Wampanoag of the original people who encountered the English. Baird said, "To say that Abenaki is Wampanog is like saying Portuguese is Spanish ... Using the same language family like this is saying one Indian isn't any different than another Indian. One language isn't any different than another. It marginalizes an entire people."^[103]

Fonologiya

Undoshlar

Massachusett consonants lack voicing and aspiration. Aspiration, or the puff of air released after a consonant, is common in English in initial consonants or for clarity and emphasis, but not the second element of consonant clusters or syllable-final positions. Thus, Massachusett /p/ is more akin to the [p] in 'spin' [spɪn] than the [pʰ] in [pʰin], which may sound voiced and confused with English /b/. Massachusett does not seem to have made any distinctions between voiced and unvoiced consonants as they exist in English, thus the colonial alphabet used voiced-unvoiced pairings such as B/P, G/C-K, J/Ch, Z/S, D./T va G(w)/Q(u) interchangeably, although it is possible that some consonants were voiced as allophonic variations or 'sounded' voiced to the English missionaries such as Eliot. As voicing is not a phonemic part of the language, the modern alphabet has purged the voiced letters save proper and personal names and loan words that have not yet been assimilated or replaced. The sound /tʲ/ is found in UK English 'tune' and in Slavic languages, it was often confused by missionary writers as /tʃ/ and written with T yoki J. It can be approximated by pronouncing the 'ti' in 'tiara' rapidly. Buni chalkashtirish mumkin TE, which was used in the colonial and currently in the modern script to represent T followed by an 'infected vowel' which together create the same sound with a slight schwa or /tʲᵊ/.

Unlilar

The symmetric vowel inventory of Proto-Algonquian was reduced through mergers along the course of its development. Massachusett vowels can be divided into the long vowels /aː/, /iː/ and /uː/; the short vowels /a/ and /ə/ and the nasal vowel /ã/, which may also be considered a long vowel as it is stressed and lengthened in speech as the other long vowels.

The language is rich in various vowel combinations and diphthongs created with final /j/ and /w/, which are often productive verbal elements. Two vowels together usually indicate hiatus of two distinct sounds and not a true diphthong, e.g., English 'coagulate' and 'cloud.' Shunday qilib, waapinum (wââpunum), 'to lift up,' is pronounced /waːaːpənəm/ and not */waːːpənəm/. Nevertheless, combinations of vowels and vowel-glide consonant (semivowel) are particularly numerous, not limited to /a a/, /aː a/, /aː ã/ /ã ə/, /aː iː/, /ãwa/, /əj/, /əw/, /əwa/, /əwaː/, /əwã/, /əwə/, /awa/, /aːw/, /aw/, /ja/, /jã/, /iːw/, /uːaːã/, etc.

Due to the wide variance of spelling, the vowels have been hardest to reconstruct for the language. The exact value is unknown, and the vowels /a/, /ã/, and /aː/ could have had values of /ɑ/, /ɑ̃/, /ɑː/, or /ɔ/, /ɔ̃/, /ɔː/. Some dialects may have differed in pronunciation, perhaps using the sounds /ɔ̃/ and /ɑ/ to represent the letters, /ô/ and /â/.^{[32][105][106][107][108]}

Grammatika

The Massachusett language shared several features in common with other Algonquian tillari. Nouns have jins asoslangan animatsiya, based on the world-view of the Indians on what has spirit versus what does not. A body would be animate, but the parts of the body are inanimate. Nouns are also marked for obviation, with nouns subject to the topic marked apart from nouns less relevant to the discourse. Shaxsiy olmoshlar uchtasini ajratib turadi shaxslar, ikkita raqam (birlik va ko'plik), inklyuziv va eksklyuziv birinchi shaxs ko'pligi va taxminiy / obviative uchinchi shaxslar. Ismlar, shuningdek, yo'qolib qolgan deb belgilanadi, ayniqsa yo'qolgan narsalar yoki vafot etgan shaxslar haqida gap ketganda. Gap tuzilmalari odatda SVO yoki SOVdan iborat, ammo so'zlarning qat'iy tartibidan og'ish sintetik tuzilish tufayli ma'noni o'zgartirmaydi.^[109] Fe'llar juda murakkab bo'lib, ularni to'rtta fe'l sinfiga ajratish mumkin: jonli-o'tkazuvchan bo'lmagan (AI), jonsiz-o'tmaydigan (II), jonli-o'tuvchi (AT) va jonsiz-o'tuvchi (IT). Fe'llar, shuningdek, prefiks va qo'shimchalar bilan turli xil burilishlar, zarralar va konjugatsiyalar bilan qo'shilgan, shuning uchun murakkab narsalarni osongina fe'l bilan ta'riflash mumkin.^[110][111]

Alifbo

XVII asrning o'rtalaridan XIX asrgacha bo'lgan hindular tomonidan Eliot tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan va ishlatilgan asl alifbo 26 ta harfdan iborat edi. Lotin alifbosi digraf qo'shilishi bilan ingliz tilida ishlatilgandek Ch 1994 yil Ispaniya orfografik islohotlaridan oldingi ispan tilidagi roliga o'xshash alohida xat sifatida. 'Sh' digrafiga o'xshash muolaja qilinmaydi. Unlilar bilan belgilanishi mumkin keskin urg'u (´) stressni yoki uzun unlilarni yoki ni belgilash uchun sirkumfleks (ˆ) burun unlisini ko'rsatish uchun ishlatilgan / ã /, ammo ushbu ko'rsatma qo'llanilishiga qaramay, ko'pgina savodli ona tilida so'zlashuvchilar va hatto Eliot ularni bir-birining o'rnida ishlatgan. Ikki karra O ligature 'Ꝏ ' "Eliot" tomonidan "fꝏd" va "mꝏd", ammo "cook" va "rook" yozuvlariga o'xshab, qisqa ovozli / ə / dan farqli o'laroq / uː / belgisi uchun ishlatilgan, ammo, Ꝏ alohida harf deb hisoblanmagan va ko'pincha "OO '. F, L, R va V faqat qarz so'zlarida uchraydi. Y runik harfning vakili sifatida tikan (Þ) Eliot davrida stenografiya sifatida ishlatilgan Th, ko'pincha farqlash uchun bosma shaklda yozilgan yuqori yoki pastki yozuv Y. Garchi mustamlaka alifbosiga kiritilmagan bo'lsa-da, undan foydalanish ba'zi ingliz tilidagi qarz so'zlarida, ayniqsa, eng qadimgi hind hujjatlarida uchragan bo'lishi mumkin. J va V, hali XVII asr ingliz tilida alohida harflar hisoblanmagan bo'lsa-da, Massachusettda alohida harflar sifatida qaraldi.

Tilni tiklashda ishtirok etadigan Woppanak jamoalari foydalanadigan alifbo, alifbo juda qisqartirilgan va soddalashtirilgan. B, D., C, F, G, Men, J, L, O, R, V, X va Z alifbo tarkibiga kirmaydi, lekin tegishli nomlar va joy nomlari uchun ishlatishda davom etadi. Ch alohida harf bo'lib qoladi, unga digraflar kiradi Sh / ʃ / va Ty / tʲ / kiritildi. Â va Ô harflar deb qaraladi, lekin mos ravishda / aː / va / ã / ni ifodalash bilan cheklangan va shu bilan o'tkir yoki sirkumfleksga ehtiyoj qolmaydi. 8 o'rnini bosadi Ꝏ zamonaviy alifboda inglizcha yozuv turlarini kiritish va ko'rsatish qulayligi uchun, shuningdek alohida harf deb hisoblanadi. E saqlanib qoladi, lekin digrafat paytida / ʲᵊ / bilan ifodalanishi cheklangan Ee / iː / uchun alohida harf sifatida ishlatiladi. Ikki tovushli bitta harf Q, so'zning yakuniy holatida / k / ni va / kʷ / boshqa joylarni etimologik maqsadlar uchun unli oldidan ifodalaydi.

Namunalarni yozish

Massachusett tilidagi tarjimalarning aksariyati diniy xarakterga ega edi, chunki missionerlar dinni qabul qilganlarni "hind tili" ni qo'lga kiritishga umid qilishgan edi. Quyida .ga misol keltirilgan Rabbimizning ibodati Eliotning 1661 yilda nashr etilgan Yangi Ahd Matto 6: 9:^[112]

Nꝏshum keskqut quttianatamanack hꝏwesaouk.
"Osmondagi Otamiz"
Peyaumꝏutch kukkenau-toomoouk ne a nack okkeet neam keskqut.
"Ismingiz muqaddasdir, shohligingiz keladi, irodangiz osmonda bo'lgani kabi er yuzida ham amalga oshiriladi.
Nem-meet-sougash asekesuhokesu assnauean yedyee kesu-kod.
"Bugun bizga kunlik nonimizni bering"
Kah ahquotaneas inneaen nummateheouqasu, neem machenekukequig nutahquoretawmomouag.
"va bizning gunohlarimizni kechir, bizni gunoh qilganlarni kechirganimiz kabi,"
Vaque sag hompagunaianeem enqutchuasouqauit webe pohquohwaossueau wutch matchitut.
"va bizni vasvasaga solmang, balki bizni yovuzlikdan qutqaring."
Nuwatche huhahteem ketassootamouk hah nuumkessouk, kah sosamꝏuk michene. Omin
'Chunki shohlik va kuch va shon-sharaf abadiydir. Omin! "

Dan parcha Josiah Paxta Massachusets (yoki Natik) hind tili lug'ati, bu erda inglizlar uning yozgan asarlari va Massachusettda otasi Jon Paxta, Vampanoagning taniqli voizi:^[113]

Savol: Uttuh woh nittinne nehtuhtauan Indianne unnontꝏwaonk?
"Hind tilini qanday o'rganishim kerak?"
Javob: Nashpe keketookauaonk Indianeog kah kuhkinasineat ukittooonkannꝏ kah wuttinnohquatumꝏonkanꝏ.
- Hindlar bilan suhbatlashish, ularning so'zlari va talaffuz uslublarini yodda tutib.

Savol: Kah uttuh unnupponꝏnat wutinnontꝏwaonk ne munohonk neit kohtohkomukcouk?
"Va orol [Marta's Vineyard] tili va asosiy o'rtasidagi farq nima?"
Javob: Mat woh nummissohhamꝏunasuh matta aꝏwahiteo webe yeu nꝏwahteauum yeug Indiansog mat wahtanooog usg Indiansog ut nishnow kuttooonganit.
"Men ayta olmayman yoki bilmayman, faqat shuni bilamanki, bu hindular hindularning har bir so'zini tushunmaydi."

Natikning ibodat qilish shahridan 1700 yilda avlodlari Tomas Vaban tomonidan yozilgan yozuvlar misoli Waban:^[114]

Sakkiz iyul kuni wehquttum Tomas. Waban seniar wutch neh
"8 iyul. Tomas Vaban Katta uning nomidan iltimos qildi"
wunneechonnoh 'nneh Tomas waban Junior' onk noh
"o'g'il, Tomas Vaban Junior va u"
"2" arcers medow -
"ikki gektar o'tloq bor."
Ne nan kesukokot wehquttum Jon wamsquon - wutch
"Xuddi shu kuni Jon Vamsquon nomidan murojaat qildi"
Tomas wamsquon onk woh wachonum meddow kah
"Tomas Vamsuon, va u o'tloqqa ega bo'lishi mumkin va"
owachannumun 'n4e nan ut - noh wehquttum - Isaak
u unga ega. Xuddi shu Isaakda
wuttasukꝏpauin ne keesukot onk noh woh wachonnum
"Vuttasukoopauin o'sha kuni iltimos qildi va u shunday qilishi mumkin"
ikkita arcourt ut wohquomppagok.
"Vokkomppagokda ikki gektar."

Soosooahquodan Noshkampetgacha, Nantaketdan erlarni olib o'tish, 1686 yilda^[115]

Neen Soosahquo mache noonammattammen noshcampaet
"Men Soosoahquo Noshcampaet bilan yaxshi savdolashdim",
ta matahketa ahto ahkuh nukquepaskooe akerssoe wana
"Mattaxketada uning yuz va yuzi bor"
nees akannu ta weessoonkiahkuh kattahtam meth wana
ikki gektar. Kattahtammet va "quruqlikda
kabeaqut kashkututkquaonk neahmute kushinemahchak
"bu botqoq keng" kabeaqut kashkuhtukqusonk neahmute '
ne sechak wuttah naskompeat wessoonck ahkuh mussnata-
"Naskompeat erining uzunligi va (va) Mussantaessuit nomi bilan er,"
-essuit ne anneh kishkoh wessoonk ahkuh massooskaassak
'(va) Massooskaassak nomi bilan erning kengligi,'
wana wessooonk sakahchah nuppessunahqunmeth na-
'va Sakashchah nuppessunnahquemmeth nomi bilan'
pache kuttahkanneth ahquampi 1686 oy 10-kun 3d.
'Kuttahkemmeth. Vaqt 1686 yil, 10-oy, 3-kun. '

Lug'at

Massachusett so'z boyligining ko'p qismini boshqa Algonquian tillari bilan baham ko'radi. Quyidagi jadval, asosan D. J. Kostaning SNEA tillarini tavsifidan olingan bo'lib, Massachusettning boshqa tillar bilan, masalan, yaqindan aloqadorligini namoyish etadi. Sharqiy Algonquian tillari Loup va Narragansett kabi SNEA tillari ham -Penobscot, ning Sharqiy filiali vakili Abenakian tillar, Munsee, a Lenape kabi til va boshqa uzoq qarindoshlar, masalan Arapaxo, a Algonquian tekisliklari til va Ojibve, a Markaziy Algonquian til.^[116]

¹ "Kiyik", "karibu" yoki "qoramol" sifatida Algonkin tili lekin "karibu" ichkarida Ojibve tili to'g'ri.
² Sifatida anim "it" uchun Algonkin tili va Oji-kri tili, lekin animosh (anim pejorativ qo`shimchasi bilan) in Ojibve tili to'g'ri.

Massachusett tilidagi ingliz tilining ta'siri

Gloucester Old Spot ekish va cho'chqalar, kolonistlarning cho'chqalariga o'xshash qadimiy ingliz zoti. Massachusett ma'ruzachilari go'sht uchun ishlatiladigan cho'chqalar uchun inglizcha atamalarni qabul qildilar.

Ingliz kolonistlari kelishi bilan hindular tezda ingliz tilini o'zlashtira boshladilar va keng jamiyatda ishtirok etish uchun zarurat tug'ildi, chunki ingliz ko'chmanchilari hindlarni o'rab olish va ularning sonidan oshib ketishdi. Hindlar yangi ekinlarni o'zlashtirdilar -suli, arpa, bug'doy, javdar; chorvachilik va uy hayvonlari—oksin, gote, maresog, cho'chqalar; vositalari va dehqonchilik usullari va moddiy madaniyat -chember ('palata'), puneetur ('qalay'), patakoot ('petticoat'), konieko ('kaliko' liboslari) va h.k.lar hindular o'z avtonomiyalarini yo'qotishni boshlaganlar va nasroniylikni qabul qilib, ibodat qiladigan shaharlarga joylashishganida -dikon, Muqaddas Kitob, Ahd, amr; mustamlakachilik qonunlari va sudlari—muhr, belgi, tomonidan kiritilgan, shoh, adolat; bojxona nomlarini belgilash—Kichik, Katta; va oxir-oqibat inglizcha o'lchovlar tizimi qabul qilingan -milya, arcours (gektar); kalendar tizimlari—Yanvar, oy, Seshanba, yil; va o'zini o'zi boshqarish -sudya ('sudyalar'), o‘ninchi kishi("ushr yig'uvchi"), tanlovchilar ('tanlovchi'), turg'unlik ('konstable') va iqtisod -shiling, pens, monêash ('pul'), dalolatnomaVa hokazo. Bundan tashqari, ko'pgina so'zlar missionerlar tomonidan mos Massachusett tarjimasini topa olmagan yoki bilmagan holda kiritilgan, shu bilan Injilning tegishli odamlari va joy nomlari va turli xil tushunchalar bilan tanishtirilgan, ularning aksariyati keyinchalik hindular tomonidan qabul qilingan.horsumoh Forobiy ('Forobiyning otliqlari'), shepsoh ('cho'pon'), cherubimsog, kema, Mo'ab, Kan'on, Quddus, panjara, va boshqalar.^{[123][124][125]}

Hukmronligidan soxta shiling Karl I (teskari). Ingliz valyutasidan foydalanish so'zlarga olib keldi moneash ('pul'), pens, shilingva to'lash- "to'lash" uchun og'zaki ildiz sifatida.

Bir qator so'zlar inglizcha ko'plik shaklida olingan, ularning yakka tartibida ishlatilgan va hindular ushbu atama jonli yoki jonsizmi deb taxmin qilishgan. Masalan, oksin (ho'kizlar), qoziqlar (cho'chqalar) va sigirlar (sigirlar) yagona "ho'kiz", "cho'chqa" va "sigir" ni ifodalagan va ko'plik shaklida berilgan oksinog (ho'kizlarak), cho'chqa (cho'chqalarak) va sigirlar (sigirlarak) "buqalar", "cho'chqalar" va "sigirlar" uchun.^[106][125] Ommaviy ismlar ham ko'pincha shu tarzda qabul qilingan va masalan, ko'plikda keltirilgan arpa (arpakul), monêash (pulkul) va otish (otilgankul) "arpa", "pul" va "otilgan" (otilgan) uchun. Ko'plik shaklida uchraydigan ismlarning aksariyati shu tarzda amalga oshirildi. Aksariyat hollarda, ehtimol birlikda ko'proq eshitiladigan boshqa kreditlar ham shu tariqa berilib, qabul qilingan saut (tuz), Hind (Hind) va plantatsiya (plantatsiya).^[126]

Massachusett bilan taqqoslaganda ingliz tilidagi murakkab undoshlar va unlilar ro'yxati tufayli ingliz tilidagi qarz so'zlari ikki usuldan birida talaffuz qilingan. Ingliz tilini yaxshi biladigan va ikki tilli bo'lganlar, ehtimol ularni inglizcha talaffuzga yaqinroq deb aytishgan, aksariyat ma'ruzachilar uni mahalliy Massachusett fonologiyasiga moslashgan. Buni AQSh ingliz tilida ko'rish mumkin, ko'proq ma'ruzachilar yoki frantsuz tilini yaxshi biladiganlar kredit so'zini talaffuz qilishadi gilyotin sifatida yoki anglicized / ˈꞬɪleˌtiːn / yoki / gē'əˌtiːn / frantsuz tiliga yaqinlashganda / ɡijɔtin /). Bu Massachusett dubletini tushuntirishi mumkin Frenchmensog va Panachmonsog "frantsuzlar" uchun. Buni yozma ravishda ko'rish mumkin, bu erda Massachusettda ko'plab qarzlar ingliz tilidagi kabi yoki moslashtirilganligini ko'rsatadigan tarzda yozilgan. Aslida / l / va / r / tilda uchramaydi, ular o'rniga / n / bilan almashtirildi, masalan pinakvit va shaan uchun 'blanket 'va' share 'yoki umuman chiqarib tashlangan citi, 'cider, 'va turg'unlik "konstab" uchunle. '^[126][125]

1749 yildagi Eski sud binosi, 1620 yildagi asl Plimut koloniyasi sud binosi joylashgan joyda. Angliya qonunlarini qabul qilishga majbur bo'lgan hindular ko'pincha o'z erlarini himoya qilish uchun sudga murojaat qilishgan.

Inglizcha kredit so'zlari murakkab Algonquian ismining pasayishi va fe'lning konjugatsiya tizimi bilan o'zgartirildi, masalan, ꝏmak (sizbelgi), 'uning belgisi,' baansu (chegaralaruw), 'bu chegaralar', nukohtꝏmun (nusudumun), 'biz (eksklyuziv) [o'tkazilgan] sud,' va nugquitglamwaan (nuda'vo[w] un), 'Men da'vo u. ' Ba'zilari sifat yoki o'zgartiruvchi sifatida ishlatilgan, masalan stakkisohtug (qoziqlaruhtuq) "yog'och qoziq", appleank (olmalarhhq)^[127] "appletree", Hindistonlik moewehkomonk "Hindiston yig'ilishi."^[126]

Ingliz tilining nisbiy ta'siriga qaramay, ayniqsa, ona tilida so'zlashuvchilar soni kam bo'lgan keyingi bosqichlarda, yozma hujjatlar ko'pincha inglizcha so'z boyligini kam ko'rsatar edi. Bunga qisman tilning mahalliy agglyutinativligi sabab bo'lgan, chunki yangi tushunchalarni ifodalash uchun yangi so'zlar osonlikcha tuzilishi mumkin edi, shuningdek, lingvistik bayonot. Ko'p kreditlar mahalliy lug'at bilan qarama-qarshi bo'lgan, garchi ba'zida u yoki boshqasida ixtisoslashgan maqsadlar mavjud. Masalan, garchi Juma va kun Massachusettda rasmiy sanalar, amallar va yuridik hujjatlarga ishora qilmasa, ma'ruzachilar ham foydalanishlari mumkin edi nequttatashikquinishonk (nuqutahshuquneehshôk) va kesuk (keesuk) umumiy foydalanishda. Xuddi shunday ixtisoslashuv ham sodir bo'ldi manitt (manut) / manat / "xudo" yoki "ruh" degan ma'noni anglatadi va keyinchalik uning o'rnini bosadi Xudo yoki Yahova manitt.^[126] XIX asrda ingliz tilining ish topish, ingliz qo'shnilari bilan muloqot qilish va hind jamoalarining kamayib ketishi va o'zaro nikoh sur'atlarining o'sishidan tashqaridagi ishlarda ishtirok etishdagi ahamiyati ma'ruzachilarni Massachusett Pidgin ingliz tiliga o'tishiga olib keldi, ammo shunga o'xshash jarayon orqali dekolizatsiya, ma'ruzachilar oxir-oqibat mahalliy taniqli nutqiga singib ketishdi Sharqiy Yangi Angliya ingliz tili lahjalar.^[128][129]

Massachusett ingliz tiliga ta'sir qiladi

So'zimushkratMassachusettdan mushkash "qizg'ish hayvon" ma'nosini anglatadi

Roanoke (1585) va birinchi doimiy yashash joyi muvaffaqiyatsiz tugagandan so'ng Jeymstaun (1607) - Powhatan tillarida so'zlashuvchilar - Nyu-Angliyaga ko'chib o'tib, Cuttyhunk (1602) va Keyp Ann (1624) da muvaffaqiyatsiz urinishlar bilan va Plimut (1621), Salem (1628), Massachusets ko'rfazida (1629) muvaffaqiyatli yashashga muvaffaq bo'lishdi. hozirgi Massachusets shtati va Massachusettda so'zlashadigan xalqlar o'rtasida joylashgan - va Nyu-Angliyadagi bir nechta boshqa joylar. Eng qadimgi ko'chmanchilar Yangi Angliyaning sovuq ob-havosida kurash olib bordilar, ularning hayoti mahalliy qishloq xo'jaligi, oziq-ovqat yordami, kam kutib olinadigan qabilalardan himoya qilish va savdo-sotiq bozori bo'yicha ta'lim olish uchun tub Amerika xalqlariga bog'liq edi. Ushbu yaqin o'zaro aloqalar orqali ingliz ko'chmanchilari yuzlab so'zlarni qabul qilishdi, ehtimol Massachusett iboralarining birikmalari va kalikalari kiritilganida yuzlab so'zlar. Algonquian kredit so'zlari "nomi bilan tanilganwigwam Massachusett Pidgindan "uy" yoki "uy" uchun "wigwam" bilan kelgan so'zlar.^[130]

Inson bolasi bilan papoz

"Papoz" (dastlab hindularning bolalari deb atalgan), "qovoq" va "mokasin" kabi ko'plab keng tarqalgan so'zlar 1643 yilda, hatto Angliyada ham Rojer Uilyamsning nashr etilishi bilan ommalashgan. Amerika tiliga kalit va natijada ko'pincha Narragansett etimologiyasi beriladi. Ko'pgina so'zlar, ehtimol, umumiy shakl g'olib chiqmaguncha yoki o'xshashlik orqali bir-birini qayta kuchaytirishga qadar mustaqil ravishda qarzga olingan.^[131] Masalan, yangi angliyaliklar XIX asrning oxirigacha SNEA R-dialektidan "vauregan" ni "kelishgan" va "ko'rgazmali" ma'nolarida ishlatishgan, ehtimol Quiripi wauregan, ammo Massachusets shtatidagi birinchi ko'chib kelganlar Massachusettdan eski "wunnegin" turdosh shakli bilan tanish edilar. wunnégan^[132] (wuneekan)^[36][133] Massachusett shtatidagi dialektdan. Bundan tashqari, muvaffaqiyatsiz bo'lgan Popham koloniyasining ingliz ko'chmanchilari va keyinchalik hozirgi Meyn va Nyu-Xempshir shtatlaridagi aholi punktlari duch kelishdi. mos Sharqiy Abenakiyadan, Yangi Angliyaning qolgan qismida ko'chmanchilar uchrashdi mꝏs SNEA tillaridan, oxir-oqibat ingliz tiliga qo'shilib, "buqa".^[134][135] Boshqa shakllar tanib bo'lmaydigan darajada qisqartirildi, "squash" Massachusettdan olingan "isquontersquash" yoki "squantersquash" asl qarzlarning qisqartirilgan jargon shakli bilan. askquasquash^[132] (ashk8tasqash) yoki Narragansett askútasquash. Ushbu "Narragansett" atamalarining aksariyati Massachusets ko'rfazidagi va Plimutdagi ingliz ko'chmanchilariga ma'lum bo'lgan va Uilyam Vud yozib olgan. pappousse va mavcus sinnus Massachusettning Pawtucket ma'ruzachilaridan va uning 1634 yilda nashr etilgan New Englands Prospect Uilyamsdan to'qqiz yil oldin papoòs va mokussinass.

Janubiy afrikalik ayollar sotishadi namuna, afrikalik ism (Massachusettdan) nasaump) Massachusettdagi kabi makkajo'xori uchun

G'arbga qarab kengayish bilan, Yangi Angliyadan kelgan ko'plab "wigwam so'zlari" va hatto Massachusett Pidgin ingliz tilining "orqaga qarab" grammatikasi va sintaksisini dastlabki kolonistlar avlodlari mahalliy xalqlar bilan muloqotda g'arbiy tomon olib borishdi, bu so'zlarning begunoh ma'nosi. XVIII asr oxiriga kelib pejorativlar yoki stereotipik tilga o'tish, g'arb tomon kengayish va Manifest Destiny pirovardida uzoq davom etgan ommaviy qirg'in va biologik urush genotsidiga aylandi. Chegaraning yangi bo'ysundirilgan xalqlari ko'pincha Algonquian ma'ruzachilari bo'lmaganligi va bu atamalarni yaxshi bilmaganliklari sababli, ular ularga qarshi ishlatiladigan o'ziga xos so'z boyliklaridan norozi edilar. Massachusettdan qarzga olingan "skvu" eng e'tiborlidir kvadrat (kv) va umuman "ayol" degan ma'noni anglatadi. Biroq, bu faqat haqorat sifatida ishlatilgani kabi, itoatkor, itoatkor hindu xotini, ochiq-oydin keksa hindu ayol yoki cho'lning ekzotik vasvasachisi va xalqning etimologiyalari ko'plab zamonaviy odamlar ishongan, masalan, kelib chiqishi ayol jinsiy a'zolari uchun qadimgi Iroquoian iborasidan olingan so'z.^[136]

Qabila guruhlari, mahalliy targ'ibot guruhlari va ijtimoiy bosim bir nechta turlarning va joy nomlarining o'zgarishiga olib keldi, ammo "skvu" bu sohalarda odatiy element bo'lib qolmoqda. Xuddi shu tarzda, Algonquian kredit so'zlarining aksariyati "otashin suvi", "balchiqni ko'mish", "wampum", "papoose", "powwow" va "jasur" kabi tajovuzkor, stereotipik jumlalarni qurish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin, ayniqsa mahalliy tilda - tadqiqotchilar, hukumat antropologlari va agentliklarining hisobotlari va "so'nggi" lariga ishora qilgan XIX asr adabiyotlarida uzoq vaqtdan beri pastkashlik, paternalistik yozuvlarda ishlatilgan.olijanob vahshiylar, 'Jeyms Fenmur Kuperning 1826 yildagi kabi Moheganlarning oxirgi qismi bu mustamlakachilik davrining susayib borayotgan ko'pgina shartlarini qayta kiritdi. Vigvam so'zlaridan ushbu noma'qul kontekstlarda foydalanish mahalliy amerikalik o'rta maktab o'quvchilarining maktabni tashlab ketish tez-tez kelib chiqishining asosiy sabablaridan biri sifatida qayd etilgan bo'lib, ular ko'pincha evropalik amerikalik o'qituvchilar tomonidan xizmat ko'rsatiladi.^[137]

Tautogolabrus adspersus, shuningdek, "chogset" deb nomlangan (Massachusett choxkesit^[138] (chakkusut),^[139] "nuqsonli" yoki "nuqsonli"

Ning qirg'oq shevalari Sharqiy Yangi Angliya ingliz tili uzoqroq ta'sir o'tkazish va ular Massachusett hududi va unga aloqador tillar atrofida gaplashish tufayli bu so'zlarning aksariyatini o'zlashtirdi. Algonquian qarz so'zlarining aksariyati XIX asrning oxiriga kelib yashirin bo'lib qoldi, bu mahalliy miqyosda Massachusettning so'nggi ma'ruzachilarining o'limi bilan bir qatorda butun Shimoliy Amerikaning barcha tub aholisi va siyosatlari to'liq bo'ysundirilishi bilan bir vaqtga to'g'ri keldi, asosan muvaffaqiyatli va amalga oshirildi. hind siyosiy birliklarini, tillari va madaniyatini yo'q qilish. Mahalliy dialektal so'zlarning aksariyati bir xil taqdirni boshdan kechirgan, ammo "quahog" va "chogset" ishlatilishidan qolgan meros "qattiq qobiqli mollyuska" yoki "yumaloq qisqichbaqa" ga tegishli. Mercenaria mercenaria va qutulish mumkin g'azab baliq, Tautoga onit boshqa joylarda "qora porgy", "chub", "blackfish" yoki "istiridye-baliq" deb nomlangan.^[140] So'nggi so'ngan so'zlar, Yangi Angliyadan atigi ellikga yaqin atamalar hanuzgacha dolzarb bo'lib qolmoqda va mahalliy sharoitda faqat ikkita sababga ko'ra muhimdir. Birinchidan, ular Algonquian kredit so'zlarining Powhatandan keyingi ikkinchi eng qadimgi va eng yirik korpusini ifodalaydi va birinchi haqiqiylar qatoriga kiradi.Amerikaizm"bu ingliz tilini farqlashni boshladi.^[135] Ikkinchidan, Massachusett kredit so'zlari boshqa mahalliy tillardan leksik qarzlarni almashtirishga qarshilik ko'rsatdi. Amerikalik ingliz tili o'sha paytdan beri "tipi,' 'hogan'va'quiggly teshikO'n to'qqizinchi asrning boshlarida butunlay boshqacha uy-joy inshootlarini nazarda tutish, ularning barchasini "wigwams" deb atash odatiy hol edi, chunki u hindu uyi uchun umumiy so'z sifatida qabul qilingan. Xuddi shunday, 'buloq'bilan almashtirilmadi Lakotiyapi héblaska, Navaxo deeteel na X̱aadas Kíl chask'w, lekin aslida o'zgartirildi Tsinuk hyas mowitch tegishli bilan Chinuk Jargon so'z buloq Massachusettdan ingliz tilida, asl atamani almashtirib.^[135]

"Wigwam" so'zlarining aksariyati, shu jumladan "wigwam" to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Massachusettdan qarz olinmagan, aksincha Massachusett Pidgin tomonidan olingan. Grammatika jihatidan sodda bo'lib, unda arxaik so'z shakllari va qo'shni tillarning shakllari kengroq mintaqada tushunilgan. Masalan, ingliz ko'chmanchilari "sachem" va "sagamore" ni qabila rahbarlari yoki "sardorlar" ga murojaat qilish uchun bir-birining o'rnida ishlatganlar. "Sachem" ehtimol Massachusettdan sontim yoki sakem (soteum) Massagusett Pidgindan esa "sagamore" sagamore (*sôkumô), yoki arxaik qurilish yoki Sharqiy Abenakian sàkama, ammo barchasi Proto-Algonquian * dan kelib chiqadi.sa · kima · va. Xuddi shu tarzda, ingliz ko'chmanchilari Pidgindan "ovqat" uchun "meechum" va "uy" uchun "wigwam" ni qabul qilishdi. meechum (*meechum) va wigwam (*weekuwôm), Massachusettning tegishli shartlari bilan meetuwonk (meechuwôk) va wek (hafta), "uning uyi" yoki wetu (weetyuw), "uy" (umuman), mos ravishda, Proto-Algonquian avlodlari *.wi · kiwa · mi.^[50][59]

O'simliklar, hayvonlar va oziq-ovqat^[141][142]

• buloq, 'Eurasia Elk / American Moose' (Alces Alces), mꝏs^[143]/(m8s).^[32]
• skunk, "skunk" (Mefit mefit), squnkk^[144]/(sukok).^[32]
• mushkrat, 'mushkrat' (Ondatra zibithecus), mushkash, 'qizg'ish hayvon.'^[145]
• tautog, 'qora baliq' (Tautoga onit), Narragansettdan tautauog (pl.).
• menhaden, 'o'g'it uchun ishlatiladigan baliqlar' (Brevoortia yoki Etmidiyum turlari), aralashmasi pauhagan, Shimoliy Yangi Angliya va Narragansettda ishlatilgan munnawhatteaûg "u urug'lantiradi" degan ma'noni anglatuvchi asosdan.
• skup, 'a pichan baliq '(Stenotomus xrizoplari). Narragansett mishcup. Shuningdek, "skuppaug" sifatida ko'rinadi.^[146]
• porgy, Sparidae oilasining baliqlari, shu jumladan skup, qo'y boshi va breams. Mahalliy tufayli Sharqiy Yangi Angliya ingliz tili dialektal talaffuz, u shuningdek "paugee" ko'rinishida ko'rinadi.^[146]
• neshaw, 'kumush bosqichi' Amerika ilonlari (Anguilla American), Marta Vineyard mahalliy aholisi tomonidan ishlatilgan.^[147] Kimdan (ne-), 'ikki' yoki 'juft',^[148] qarz neeshauog, 'ular juft bo'lib boradilar.'^[149]
• pishaug, 'yosh ayol Surf-skoter,' (Melanitta perspicillata).^[147]
• namuna, "makkajo'xori maydalangan donalari bo'tqasi", Natikdan nausampe yoki Narragansett nasaump.
• nokake, 'Johnnycake, 'dan nꝏhkik^[150]/(n8hkuk)^[151]
• qovoq, dastlab "askoquash", "askutasqash" yoki "squantersqash" ning qisqa shakli. Ning xonakilashtirilgan navlariga ishora qiladi Cucurbita odatda Shimoliy Amerikada qovoq, qovoq va qovoq va ingliz tilida so'zlashadigan dunyoning boshqa qismlarida ilik sifatida tanilgan.
• oshqovoq, ning katta, to'q sariq navlariga ishora qiladi Cucurbita pepo var. pepo va shunga o'xshash qishki qovoqchalar. Dastlab "pompions" deb nomlangan. Kimdan phpukun, "dumaloq o'sadi."^[32]
• quahog, "qattiq qisqichbaqa" (Mercenaria mercenaria). Cf. Narragansett poquauhok. Vampanoag shevasida Nantucket baliqchilari "pooquaw" iborasini ishlatishgan.
• sukotash, "loviya va makkajo'xori idishi". Cf. Narrangansett 'msickquatash', 'qobiqli qaynatilgan makkajo'xori donalari' va Massachusett sohquttaham, 'u (makkajo'xori) chig'anoqlari.'^[152]

Hind qurollari, texnologiyasi, jamiyat va madaniyat^[141][142]

• matchit, "yomon". Kimdan matchit^[153] va fe'l asosi (mat), "yomon".^[154]
• papoz, "boladan". Cf. Natik papaseit va Naragansett papoos.^[155]
• mokasin, 'poyabzal.' Kimdan mokus^[156]/(mahkus).^[32]
• netop, 'do'stim'. Kimdan netomp/(neetôp).
• no'xat, "pul", qisqasi wampumpeag, ingliz ko'chmanchilari tomonidan pul uchun aralashtirilgan qobiq boncuklarını nazarda tutadi. Shuningdek 'wampum'.
• sakem, "boshliq." Kimdan sontim yoki sakem^[157]/(soteum).^[32]
• pogamoggan, "klub" yoki "novda". Kimdan pogkomunk.^[158]
• manitu, "ruh" yoki "xudo". Bilan tanishing manitt^[159]/(manut)^[160]
• voy voy, "Hind yig'ilishi" yoki umuman "yig'ilishlar". Dastlab "shaman" deb nomlangan. Kimdan kuch/(pawaw),^[32] "u davolaydi."
• kinnikinnik, 'o'simliklardan chekish aralashmasi.' Delawaran, lekin u bilan aloqada kenugkiyeuonk dan (keuk), 'aralashtirish.'^[161]
• nunkom, 'yigit.' Kimdan nunkomp.^[147][150]
• totem, 'qabila ma'naviy, ramziy yoki muqaddas timsolidir.' Bilan tanishing wutohkit, 'bu erga tegishli.'^[162]
• kokus, 'siyosiy tarafdorlar uchun uchrashuv'. Ehtimol shunga o'xshash shakldan kelib chiqadi kogkateamau,^[163] "u maslahat beradi" va (kakahkutyum-), 'boshqalarga maslahat berish.'^[164]
• hominy, 'nixtamlized makkajo'xori' ko'pincha iste'mol qilinadi grit. Bilan tanishing (taqaham-), 'maydalash uchun.'.^[165]
• mugwump, ilgari "shohpin" yoki "qirol yasovchi" ma'nosida ishlatilgan; keyinchalik Grover Klivlendni qo'llab-quvvatlagan respublikachilarni va hozir siyosiy jihatdan betaraf, mustaqil odamlarni qo'llab-quvvatlayotganlarni ta'riflash uchun. Dastlab "urush rahbari" deb nomlangan. Kimdan magunquomp.^[166]
• Toshence, "oxirgi narsa", garchi bir vaqtlar Massachusets shtatining janubi-sharqida "oxirgi bola" ma'nosida ishlatilgan. Kimdan matasonlar, 'kenja bola'.^[147][167]
• mushk, "botqoq". Kimdan Kri, lekin Narragansett bilan qarindosh metchaug, 'qalin o'rmon'.^[168]
• fitna, "Hawkweed", shuningdek, Yangi Angliyada "hind bo'yoq cho'tkasi" nomi bilan mashhur. Ning bir nechta turlariga ishora qiladi Ieratsium.^[147]
• pung, ning qisqartirilgan shakli tom pung, 'bitta otli chana'.^[147]
• tomahawk, 'bolta' ('bolta') yoki 'balta'. Kimdan Powhatan, lekin bilan o'xshash tongkong.^[169]

Topografik meros

Massachusets shtatining sharqiy qismida joylashgan ko'plab ko'chalar, ko'llar, ko'llar, tepaliklar va qishloqlar kelib chiqishi Massachusett tilida. Davlat nomining o'zi "katta tepalik yonida" yoki "o'q uchiga o'xshash tepalik" degan ma'noni anglatishi mumkin. Juda oz sonli shahar va shaharlarda hind nomlari bor, aksariyati Angliyadagi shahar va qishloqlar bilan bog'langan, ammo Massachusettdan kelib chiqishi ehtimol shaharlarga kiradi. Acushnet ("tinch suv uchun dam olish joyi"), Akvinna ("tepaliklar ostida"). Koxass (quonnihasset, 'uzoq baliq ovlash nuqtasi'), Mashpee (massanippe, "katta suv"), Nantucket, "suvlar o'rtasida", Natik, "tepaliklar joyi", Saugus ('chiqish, kengaytma'), Maqola, "sovuq ariq", Seekonk, 'Kanadalik g'oz', va Swampscott, "qizil toshda" yoki "singan suvlarda".^[170] Hindistonning boshqa taniqli plasenimlariga "Shavmut" (mashauwomuk, oldingi nomi Boston, 'kanoeda qo'nadigan joy'), 'Neponset' (Bostonning Dorchester qismida va Dorchester qishlog'idan oqib o'tadigan daryo, noma'lum ma'noni anglatadi) Cuttyhunk ho'l bo'lib ketdi (pocuohhunkkunnah, "ketish nuqtasi"), Nantasket (Hulldagi plyaj, "past haroratli joy") va Sirli daryo ('buyuk daryo').^[171]

Shahar va shaharchalar

Oldingi ismlar bilan tanilgan shaharlar

Qishloqlar

Orollar

Ko'llar va suv havzalari

Daryolar

Adabiyotlar

Bibliografiya

• Little Doe Fermino, Jessie. (2000). An Introduction to Wampanoag Grammar, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), MS thesis.
• Goddard, Ives. (1978). "Eastern Algonquian Languages" in Shimoliy Amerika hindulari uchun qo'llanma, vol. 15 (Trigger, Bruce G., ed.). Vashington, Kolumbiya: Smitson instituti.
• Goddard, Ives and Bragdon, Kathleen J. (eds.) (1989) Native Writings in Massachusett, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-185-X
• Moondancer and Strong Woman. (2007). Yangi Angliyaning mahalliy xalqlarining madaniy tarixi: o'tmish va hozirgi zamon ovozlari, Boulder, CO: Bauu Press. ISBN 0-9721349-3-X
• Walker, Willard B. (1997). "Native Writing Systems" in Shimoliy Amerika hindulari uchun qo'llanma, vol. 17 (Ives Goddard, ed.). Vashington, Kolumbiya: Smitson instituti.

Tashqi havolalar

Vikibutlarda quyidagi mavzular haqida ko'proq ma'lumot mavjud: Massachusett tili

• The Wôpanâak (Wampanoag) Language Reclamation Project
• Wampanoag Language and the Wampanoag Indian Tribe (general information and links)
• Ketrin Perri (Direktor) (2012-11-23). "*Special Feature* Wômpanâak: Resurrection of a Language.". 95.9 WATD-FM. Olingan 2013-01-20. Yo'qolgan yoki bo'sh | qator = (Yordam bering) 11 min.
• "We Still Live Here" Documentary – "We Still Live Here" Documentary about Wampanoag language

Lug'atlar va grammatika

• Vocabulary of the Massachusetts (or Natick) Indian language (1829)
• Trumbull, Jeyms Hammond (1903). Natik lug'ati, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office (Washington) (also Internet arxivida)
• Return of the Wampanoag language (and Alphabet)

Grammatika

• Fermino, Jessie Little Doe (2000): An Introduction to Wampanoag Grammar, MIT
• Eliot, John (1666): The Indian Grammar Begun. Cambridge: Marmaduke Johnson.

Matnlar

• "Algonquian Texts" (features many Wampanoag texts, including the bulk of the Eliot bible and subsequent missionary writings), University of Massachusetts
• Eliot, "Translation of the Book of Genesis, 1655, Kings Collection
• Eliot, John (1709): The Massachuset Psalter or, Psalms of David with the Gospel according to John. Boston, N.E: Company for Propagation of the Gospel in New England.
• OLAC resources in and about the Wampanoag language